
Glass. 
Book. 



i' 



Paper and its Uses 

A TREATISE FOR PRINTERS 
STATIONERS AND OTHERS 



EDWARD A. DAWE 

Assistant Examiner of Paper, H. M. Stationay Office 

City and Guilds of London Instructor in Typography , 

Honours SilTcr Medallist 'in Typography 



mttb 34 Samples ^X paper 




NEW YORK 

D. APPLETON AND COMPANY 

MCMXIV 









Printed at 

The Darien Press 

Edinburgh 

A <^C 6 6 7 



/5-/(^iOI 



PREFACE 



The library of the papermaker is well furnished with 
excellent works on the manufacture of paper, but the 
printer, stationer, and student are not so well catered 
for. The present volume aims to present a concise 
and comprehensive treatise on the manufacture and 
use of paper, which shall be intelligible to the student, 
and at the same time sufficiently progressive to lead to 
the study of the larger works on papermaking. 

The late Mr Richard Parkinson was responsible 
for a work which sought to fill the want in the printer's 
technical library, and by extensive study and research 
he was able to produce a clear and concise book on 
paper and its uses. An important feature of great 
practical value was a section of samples bound at the 
end of the work. By adopting the plan of this earlier 
volume, the Author feels that the utmost usefulness is 
obtained. This has been possible by the generosity of 
Mr R. E. Parkinson, who placed the rights in his 
father's work at the writer's disposal. 

Reference to the Syllabus of the Examinations of the 
City and Guilds of London Institute for Typographic 
and Lithographic Students will show that a more 
detailed knowledge of the manufacture of paper and 
its use is expected than can be found in the text- 



IV PREFACE 

books on printing. It is believed that the sections 
dealing with testing papers, the prices and weights of 
papers, as well as the alphabetical list, will prove of 
value to students generally. 

Illustrations of methods of manufacture and of 
various machinery have been kindly lent by the 
manufacturers to render the mysteries of the making, 
treatment, and testing of paper a little clearer. The 
wholesale houses have rendered valuable assistance by 
supplying the samples bound at the end of the volume, 
and with helpful advice. To all these and to other 
friends who have revised the proofs of the work the 
Author tenders his grateful thanks. 

EDWARD A. DAWE. 

Wallington, 1914. 



CONTENTS 



CHAPTER PAGE 

I. Raw Materials ------ i 

II. Reduction to Pulp ------ 8 

III. Manufacture of Hand-made and Mould-made 

Papers -------- 14 

IV. Machine made Papers ----- 18 
V. Finishing ------- 28 

VI. Manufacture of Boards ----- 35 

VII. Writing Papers ------- 38 

VIII. Printing Papers ------- 43 

IX. Coated Papers and Boards - - - - 48 

X. Miscellaneous Papers — Blotting, Tissue, 
Copying, Duplicating, Cover, Gummed 

Wrapping - - - - - - - 5' 

XI. Cards and Cardboards - . - . - 58 

XII. Durability of Paper - - - - - 61 

XIII. Defects and Remedies ----- 66 

XIV. The Right Paper - ----- 79 

XV. The Stock Room ------ 89 

XVI. Paper Testing ------- 96 

XVII. Alphabetical List of Papers - - - - 113 



Tables of Sizes, Weights, and Prices of Papers 

and Boards " ^35 

Equivalent Weights of Papers of Various 

Sizes --------- 144 

Problems in Cost, Weight, and Quantities of 

Paper - - i4^^ 

Paper Trade Customs ----- 149 



VI CONTENTS 

PAGE 

City and Guilds of London Institute Ex- 
aminations—Extracts FROM Syllabus of 
Typography and Lithography - - 152 

Books and Periodicals on Papermaking and 

Testing - 154 

Index - - - - - - - - - 155 

Samples of Paper - - at end 0/ volume 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 



17 to 



12 to 



fl<^- PAGE 

1. Beating Engine ---... iq 

2. Edge Runner or Kollergang - - - 12 

3. Hand Moulds and Deckle - - - - 15 

4. Method of Making Small Sheets on Hand 

Mould -------- 16 

5. Elevation of Paper Machine - - - 19 

6. Front View of Paper Machine - - - 22 

7. End of Wove Dandy Roll - - - - 24 

8. End of Laid Dandy Roll - - - - 24 

9. End of Spiral Laid Dandy Roll - - - 24 

10. Single Cylinder Paper Machine - - 26 

11. Web Glazing Calender - - - - - 31 

12. Ball Frame for Hanging Paper - - - 69 

13. ''Swift" Paper Curing Machine - . 70 

14. Paper Scale ------- 97 

15. Marshall's Paper-Testing Machine - - 98 

16. Leunig Paper-Testing Machine - - - 99 
21. Papermaking Fibres: Rag, Hemp, Manilla, 

Jute ---.-_ facing 109 

26. Papermaking Fibres : Straw, Esparto, 
Bamboo, Chemical Wood, Mechanical 
Wood ------- faci?ig no 



PAPER AND ITS USES 



CHAPTER I 

RAW MATERIALS 

Papermaking is an industry which is in many ways 
handmaiden to other industries. In the case of letter- 
press, Hthographic, and plate printing it furnishes the 
supporting medium, without which the dissemination of 
knowledge would be more difficult. Long ago the 
printer appreciated the fact that the invention of the 
art of typography enlarged the sum of the world's 
knowledge, but perhaps he has not always been ready 
to give the papermaker a fair share of the credit. It 
must be conceded that while many things will serve as 
printing surfaces, the question of cost decides against 
their general use, and that paper is the principal 
material employed for written and printed books. It 
is with these uses that this work deals, while some 
others are touched upon. 

The history of papermaking takes us back beyond 
the Christian era — the Chinese being credited with 
the production of paper from vegetable fibres about 8o 
to 150 B.C. The ancient Egyptians made paper from 
the stems of the tall reed which we know as the 
papyrus. By skilfully flattening out layers of the 
stems, forming them into sheets, and preparing the 



2 PAPER AND ITS USES 

surface for writing, the Egyptians provided themselves 
with excellent paper. 

European papermaking dates from the eleventh 
century, and English papermaking from the fifteenth 
century. The colophon to Wynkyn de Worde's " De 
Proprietatibus Rerum " mentions the paper mill of 
John Tate at Stevenage in Hertfordshire. Early 
English papers were made from rag fibres, and rag 
papers still hold the premier place. 

Cellulose is the substance of which the permanent 
cell membranes of plants are composed, and it forms the 
bulk of the tissues of wood and similar plant structures. 
In most cases the presence of colouring matter and 
various waxy and resinous substances taken up by the 
growing plant render the cellulose very impure, and it 
is desirable that, as far as possible, all impurities should 
be removed before the fibres are made into paper. 
Cotton is the purest form of cellulose found in nature, 
91 per cent, of the natural cotton fibre being pure cellu- 
lose, while esparto yields only about 50 per cent, of its 
weight as cellulose. Notwithstanding the many dif- 
ferent varieties of plants, the chemical composition of 
the fibres is practically identical. One of the principal 
characteristics of cellulose is its extreme permanence, 
which is principally due to the fact that it forms but 
few chemical combinations with other substances. 

Vegetable fibres of all kinds may be converted into 
paper, but no new fibre threatens those now employed, 
unless it can be obtained in large quantities, responds 
readily to the usual bleaching reagents, and can be 
delivered to the papermaker at a price which enables it 
to compete successfully with the fibres at present in use 
at the paper mill. In some cases the plant fibres are 
reduced to pulp near the place of growth, in others 
the raw material is transported in its entirety. Other 



RAW MATERIALS 3 

sources of supply are the wastes of other industries, 
and wastes which have no other uses. 

The classification may take place as follows : {a) 
waste — rags, sails, sacking, ropes, textile wastes, waste 
paper ; {b) plant steins and ivood — straw, esparto, bam- 
boo, papyrus, hedychium ; {c) pulps or half-stiiffs — 
straw, esparto, delta cellulose (or reed pulp), bamboo, 
chemical wood, mechanical wood. 

Rags are the cast-off fabrics of the civilised world. 
Having served their purpose in administering to the 
comfort of mankind, they are sorted, graded, and 
offered in the market for papermakers. For the 
manufacture of paper for bank-notes new linen cut- 
tings are used, but this is an exceptional material for a 
special purpose. Sail cloth, bagging, sacking and 
ropes, made from hemp, jute, manilla hemp, having 
reached the waste market, are regenerated in the 
mill as paper. Waste paper of all kinds is sorted 
and re-made into paper or boards. 

Esparto is the principal material that finds its way 
to the papermaker in its original state. It is a wiry 
grass, growing extensively in Spain and Africa, and is 
harvested and packed in bales for export. Straw 
is generally imported as half-stuff. Bamboo, papyrus, 
and hedychium are being used in quite a small way in 
this country, but may be extensively used in the future. 
Straw, esparto, reed pulp, and bamboo are obtainable 
as half-stuff or pulp, that is, they are already divested 
of the portions of the plant which are non-fibrous, and 
therefore useless to the papermaker. Wood pulp is 
the chief material converted into paper, and may be 
prepared as chemical or mechanical. Chemical wood 
pulp is prepared, after removing the bark from the 
felled trees, and cutting the logs into chips, by boiling 
with caustic soda solution (soda pulp), with a mixture 



4 PAPER AND ITS USES 

of caustic soda and sulphate of soda (sulphate pulp), 
or with bi-sulphite of lime (sulphite pulp). Mechanical 
wood pulp is obtained by cutting the logs into short 
lengths, removing the bark, and grinding to pulp on a 
large grindstone, the surface of which is freely supplied 
with water. The water renders the reduction to pulp 
an easier matter, and also serves to carry the pulp 
forward for subsequent treatment. 

In speaking of paper it is usual to refer to the 
material from which it is made, e.g., rag, rope, esparto, 
manilla or wood papers. It does not always follow 
that the papers are composed entirely of those fibres, 
but the prefix of " pure " or " all " will generally indicate 
the genuine articles. Paper which is free from mechani- 
cal wood pulp is sometimes referred to as " free." 

The strongest and best papers are made from 
cotton or linen rag fibres. Linen is made from the 
fibres of the flax. In the raw state the fibres are 
from I inch to i i inches in length, and less than yoVo of 
an inch in diameter. Examined microscopically the 
fibres appear to be smooth, cylindrical, with markings like 
the joints of a cane, slight cross markings, and a very 
fine channel running through the fibres. Papers made 
from linen are close, strong, and durable. Cotton is 
the seed-hair of the cotton plant, having a length of ij 
to I \- inches with the diameter about the same as that 
of linen fibres. Cotton is tubular, has a large channel, 
and on drying the tube collapses and twists upon itself, 
as many as 300 twists in the length of a single fibre 
having been observed. This twisting assists in keep- 
ing the spun cotton together, and also makes the felting 
of the subsequent paper more efficient. Papers made 
from cotton are softer than those made from linen, 
and the tenderest rags, such as worn muslins, are em- 
ployed for blotting papers. Hemp is obtained from 



RAW MATERIALS 5 

the stem of the hemp plant, and the papermaker 
receives it in the form of old ropes and string. The 
dimensions and properties of the fibre are similar to 
those of the fibre of linen. Jute is the inner bark of 
an Indian plant, producing fibres iV of an inch in length 
by TuVo of an inch in diameter. The fibre is smooth, 
difficult to bleach, but the resulting paper is strong and 
tough. The fibre of the manilla hemp is not as long 
as the ordinary hemp, being about } of an inch by toVo 
of an inch, cannot be bleached to a good white, so a 
white manilla paper is considerably lower in colour 
than other white papers. Manilla paper is, however, 
very tough and strong, and though a large quantit}- of 
" manilla " paper is made entirely of wood pulp, there 
is a great difference between the real and the imitation. 

The fibres from straw are small, onl}^ about tV of an 
inch by ttuVo of an inch, and consecjuently straw papers 
are much weaker than those made from longer and 
broader fibres, but, as an admixture, straw still finds a 
place in writing papers, giving translucenc)' and rattle. 
Esparto fibres are also very short and fine, about 
A to tV of an inch by t7oVo of an inch, making a light 
bulky paper when used by itself, and blended with other 
materials — with rags for good writings, and with chemi- 
cal wood for fine printings and litho. papers — to impart 
special characteristics, such as opacity and softness, which 
may be lacking in the other fibres. The well-known 
featherweight papers, used for bulky volumes of fiction, 
are frequently manufactured from esparto fibre alone. 

The fibres of the various wood pulps vary con- 
siderably in length, breadth, and thickness, being from 
iiV of an inch to J of an inch long, and generally very 
thin. Fibres of various shapes are met with in wood 
pulps, some not unlike linen fibres, but many others 
so distinct as to be unlike all those that have been 



D PAPER AND ITS USES 

already described. Broad, ribbon-like fibres, some 
pitted, and others perforated, all are very thin, lying 
closely together, so that a paper made entirely from 
sulphite wood pulp is rather harsh and fairl}' trans- 
parent. Papers produced from soda pulp are softer 
and more opaque than those made from sulphite pulp. 
Mechanical wood pulp is made up of little pieces 
of wood with all the resins and other impurities 
of the original wood, and when examined carefully, 
the fragments of wood can be seen, and the splinters 
appear to be held together by the plant cells. 
Mechanical wood pulp possesses very little felting 
quality, and requires the addition of larger fibres, such 
as chemical wood, in order to make paper successfully. 

From the foregoing list and descriptions it can be 
seen that papermakers have a variet}' of fibres at their 
command, and it is by selecting, sometimes by blend- 
ing, fibres of different characteristics, that the manu- 
facture of the large variety of papers is possible. 
Some of the demands made b}' the world of paper 
users are for papers which are very strong or very 
soft, absorbent, resistant to grease or water, very light, 
very dense, and the selection of the fibres and their 
treatment call for special knowledge and skill on the 
part of the papermaker. 

In addition to fibre, most papers contain sizing, 
sometimes loading or filling. Sizing may be animal 
or vegetable, the animal size being gelatine or glue 
obtained from various animal substances, and the 
vegetable size being made of a combination of resin 
with soda. Alum is used to assist in fixing the size 
in the paper. Mineral matters are employed for filling 
or loading ; china clay is the principal, others being 
barium sulphate (barytes, blanc fixe), calcium sulphate 
(gypsum, terra alba, annaline, pearl hardening, crown 



RAW MATERIALS 7 

filler), satin white, magnesium silicate (asbestine, talc, 
agalite). Colouring matters are required for the 
majority of papers. For white papers small quantities 
of blue and red colours are used, while for coloured 
papers aniline dyes are employed in a large variety, 
as well as the various pigments. 



CHAPTER II 
REDUCTION TO PULP' 

Whatever material may be used for making into 
paper it has to undergo stages of preparation which 
can be divided into removing all foreign matter and 
dirt, reduction to fibrous state, bleaching, beating, and 
lastly converting what is the pulp into paper. If the 
material has alread}^ been manufactured, as in the case 
of rags, ropes, sails, sacking, and other textiles, the first 
process is somewhat simpler than in the case of really 
raw materials, such as esparto, bamboo, or wood. But 
here again the first and second operations may have 
been carried out before the papermaker handles the 
material, for wood, esparto, and bamboo are imported 
as pulp boards. In the case of esparto the quantity 
so imported is very small, but the quantity of wood 
pulp is enormous. It will be advisable to take the 
materials in order, so that the difference as well as the 
similarity of treatment may be traced. 

Rags are purchased already graded. There are 
some twenty to thirty grades of rags regularly quoted 
in the market reports, and the layman might fancy that 
the papermaker could unpack the bales and proceed to 
make paper from these graded rags. Unfortunately 
he finds a large quantity of undesirable material, such 
as silk, wool, buttons, elastic, and dirt, that must be 
removed. First the rags are sorted, and cut into 
pieces of uniform size, the undesirable parts mentioned 



REDUCTION TO PULP 9 

being put aside as useless, and the seams cut open or 
thrown out. Standing at a bench, the top of which is 
wire netting, the sorter takes rags from a pile, and cuts 
them on a scythe-like knife which stands out obliquely 
from the bench. A large amount of dust escapes 
through the netting, and the rags are sorted into bins 
as more suitable for one class of paper than another. 
The rags are next taken to the willow or dusting 
machine, where they are subjected to violent treatment, 
the teeth of the machine carrying the rags against other 
teeth, giving them a thorough shaking and loosening 
the dust, which falls away. As they are cleaned, the 
rags are taken to the top of the building by a travel- 
ling band and dropped into the mouth of a boiler 
prepared to receive them. For rags a special spherical 
rotary boiler is employed, and when a charge has been 
filled in, a definite quantity of a solution of caustic 
soda in water is added. The lid is securely fastened, 
steam is passed in, and the boiler is kept rotating slowly 
for about eight hours. When the dirt in the rags has 
been thoroughly loosened the rotation is stopped, steam 
is shut off, the dirty water is run off, clean water is 
run in. The boiler is again revolved, the rags rinsed, 
and then the lid is removed and the boiler emptied by 
continuing the revolution. 

Next comes the washing and breaking, both of 
which may be carried out in the beating engine. The 
beating engine, of the Hollander type, consists of a 
large vessel with rounded ends, with a central division 
running down the length of the engine. Two cylinders 
revolve : one, a ver}^ heavy cylinder known as the beat- 
ing roll, reaches to the bottom of the engine and bears 
a number of knives on its surface, which knives, in 
conjunction with a bedplate also bearing knives, break 
the rags into smaller fragments and open the threads. 



lO 



PAPER AND ITS USES 



loosening the fibres, and allowing dirt to come away. 
The second and smaller c}4inder is employed as a 
washing drum. It is covered with wire gauze, through 
which the water passes, and as the drum revolves the 
dirty water passes into the interior, where a number of 
bucket compartments carry the water and pass it 
through the axis of the drum to the waste pipe. 
When the rags are filled into the beating engine clean 
water is run in, the beating roll is kept out of contact 




FKt. I. — Beating Engine, with covers partially removed to show 
interiors of Beating Roll and Washing Drum. 



With the bottom knives, and the rags are kept in 
circulation. The washing cylinder is in action, and 
the roll being graduall}- lowered the dirt is eliminated. 
When this stage is reached the washing drum is lifted, 
the beating roll lowered, and the rags are gradually 
reduced in size until they attain a state of fibrous pulp, 
being known technicall}- as " half-stuff." In most 
instances the next process is bleaching. There are 
special drawing papers, of which " O.W." and " Un-- 
bleached Arnold " are examples, which are the colour of 
the original rags, no bleaching having taken place. But 



REDUCTION TO PULP II 

usually a weak solution of bleaching powder (chloride 
of lime) is let into the engine and thoroughl)' mixed 
with the pulp. When the bleach is thoroughly 
incorporated the half-stuff is let down into large 
tanks, made of stoneware or cement, having perforated 
bottoms, and there the bleach completes its task, and 
the pulp is allowed to drain. 

Next comes the beating, at which stage the blend- 
ing of different fibres may take place. The object of 
beating is to reduce the bleached pulp to fibres, and to 
reduce the length of the fibre in accordance with the 
requirements of the paper to be made. The rags are 
chosen according to the class of paper desired — softer 
rags for soft papers, and, of course, stronger rags for strong 
papers. For blottings, filter papers, and lithographic 
papers, soft rags, sharp beater knives, quick beating are 
adopted. For dense, hard papers, such as ledger, type- 
writing, bank, imitation parchment papers, duller knives, 
slow beating, with a gradual lowering of the beater roll 
is the order. The normal time for beating the pulp for 
an ordinary rag paper may be taken as eight hours. 

To take the next material, esparto, and to follow it 
in the same way. Esparto arrives in bales, fastened 
either with ropes of esparto or with iron bands. Esparto 
travels through the mill in the same way as rags, that 
is, from the ground floor, where it is unpacked and 
dusted, upwards by means of a series of claws, along 
a travelling band where pickers remove foreign sub- 
stances. In its travel broken fibres and dirt escape, and 
the grass arrives at the mouth of an upright cylindrical 
boiler, stationary, and so arranged that the boiling 
liquor is vomited over the mass of esparto. The boiler 
is filled, and a fairly strong solution of caustic soda is 
run in, the manhole is fastened down, and steam under 
pressure introduced. After several hours boiling the 



12 PAPER AND ITS USES 

siliceous and waxy substances taken up by the growing 
plant are dissolved, the dirty water is run out, small 
quantities of clean water let in to wash out as much 
soda as possible. Most of the soda is recovered, but 
that process, though of great importance to the paper- 
maker, need not be treated here. The washed esparto 
is conveyed to the breaking engine for treatment similar 




IMPODVCO «OlI Et^GANG WiTH STRNE?' B*^ Dt/V^ tSi^s BROAD 



Fig. 2. — Edge Runner or Kollergang. 

to that given to rags, being washed, broken, and bleached. 
In many mills the half-stuff is carried over strainers, 
and by the use of the presse-pate machine (a paper- 
making machine with only a " wet end ") made into 
sheets. The half-stuff in sheets is filled into trucks 
and stored or taken direct to the beaters. Owing: to 
the small dimensions of esparto the reduction to the 
fibrous state is easily accomplished, and very little 
beating is necessary. 



REDUCTION TO PULP 13 

Wood, chemical or mechanical, usually finds its way 
to the paper mills m the form of pulp boards, and is 
known as chemical or mechanical wood pulp. No 
boiling is necessary, but the boards are fed into the 
breaking engine, and reduced to half-stuff, a little bleach 
liquor added to chemical wood, and the contents of 
the engine, when sufficiently reduced, are let down to 
the draining tanks for the bleach to expend itself. 
Then the pulp is ready for the beating engine, where it 
is reduced to the necessary degree of fineness. 

Some materials are more eff'ectively reduced to 
pulp in the edge runner or kollergang. This machine 
is similar in appearance to a mortar mill, but the 
arrangement is slightly different. The pan of the 
machine is stationary, and the stones revolve and travel 
round the pan. Only a small quantity of water is used 
with the pulp, and waste papers which require rubbing 
apart only, and strong wood pulps of which the fibres 
are drawn out, and not in any way reduced in length, 
are treated in this machine more economically and 
more effectively than in the beating engine. 



CHAPTER III 

MANUFACTURE OF HAND MADE 
AND MOULD MADE PAPERS 

English hand-made paper is still looked upon as 
the best paper obtainable. Some fourteen firms still 
make paper by hand, and although the number does 
not increase, there is no sign of its diminution. The 
reduction of the rags to fibre was treated in the 
last chapter. Before leaving the beating engine the 
colouring matter is added ; in the case of a white 
paper a small amount of blue is necessary to counter- 
act the grey appearance which the natural pulp 
usually assumes. This is merely equivalent to the 
blueing which is resorted to for giving linen a bright 
appearance, and is not sufficient to tint the paper. If 
the paper is to be blue laid, azure, or yellow wove, 
smalts is the colouring matter used. This is an in- 
destructible blue, being cobalt glass reduced to ex- 
tremely fine powder, and is used for the highest grades 
of papers, but many hand-made papers will be found 
to be coloured with ultramarine, which is a very good 
blue, but not quite so durable as smalts. Coloured 
papers require different additions, some in the form of 
powders or dry colours, others in chemical solutions, 
which by combination produce the desired colour in 
the pulp. When thoroughly mixed, the pulp is let 
down to the stuff chests and kept in constant motion 
by revolving paddles. The vat at which the paper- 



MANUFACTURE OF HAND-MADE PAPERS 



15 



maker — the vatman — stands is kept supplied with 
pulp, diluted to a regular consistency, kept in motion 
by an agitator, and a constant temperature is main- 
tained. The mould used is a wooden frame, strengthened 
by ribs across its width, and a wire top of laid or 
woven wire.' In the case of laid papers the wires are 
laid side by side, tying wires about an inch apart are 
superimposed, and fastened to the laid wires by very 
fine brass wire. These wires make an indelible im- 
pression upon all paper made upon the mould, and 
distinguish laid from wove papers, the latter being 
made upon a woven wire 
mould. Watermarks are 
the results of designs in 
reverse fastened to the 
mould, the design being 
formed with wire upon 
the mould, or else an 
electrotyped mark is sol- 
dered to the mould. 
Watermarks may be 
simply small designs or 
lettering, or they may 

take the form of elaborate pictorial designs, but their 
purpose is to add distinction to the paper, and in 
some cases to prevent forgery of valuable notes or 
documents. Upon the mould is laid an open frame, 
known as the deckle, which serves to confine the 
pulp to the mould. For all papers two moulds are 
used in order to continue the cycle of operations un- 
interruptedly. 

The vatman takes a mould, places the deckle upon 
it, dips the mould into the vat of diluted pulp, and lifts 
just the quantity of pulp necessary for the weight of 
paper being made. A slight shake is given to the 




YiG, 3. — Hand Moulds and Deckle 
(Laid and Wove Moulds). 



i6 



PAPER AND ITS USES 



mould, a small side shake and a greater shake back- 
wards and forwards, something like the shake given to 
a type case, but less violent, the object being to cause 
the individual fibres to cross and felt together. The 
mould is kept perfectly level, or the sheets are thinner 
at one edge than at the others, the mould is pushed 




Fig. 4. —Method of Making Small Sheets on Hand Mould. 



along a support by the side of the vat, the deckle 
removed, and the operations of moulding repeated with 
the second mould. 

The coucher who places the paper upon the felts 
ready for pressing, or couching, stands to the left of 
and facing the vatman. He takes the mould, stands 
it at an angle to drain, and places the mould face 
downwards upon a felt ; the paper remains on the felt, 



MANUFACTURE OF HAND-MADE PAPERS I/ 

and the mould is returned to the vatman. The felts 
are woollen cloths of close texture, resembling that of 
machine blankets, and are larger than the paper placed 
upon them. 

Upon each sheet of paper a third worker places 
a felt, and the papermaking proceeds. When the pile 
of felts and paper is sufficiently high, it is transferred 
to a hydraulic press, and considerable pressure is 
applied in order to remove as much water as possible 
by squeezing, and, more important, to couch or press 
the fibres together and to close the sheets. The pile 
is removed, the felts taken out, the pile of paper given 
further pressing, and for some papers the paper is 
turned, rebuilt, and pressed again, to improve the close- 
ness of the sheets. The paper is then taken to the 
drying loft, hung on ropes of cow hair, which material 
possesses the virtue of making no marks or stains 
upon the tender paper. Loft-drying is carried on 
at an even temperature, in order to permit of even 
shrinkage of the sheets. At this stage the paper, 
which is unsized, is known as waterleaf, and unless 
it is to be used in the unsized state, requires further 
treatment, as described in the next chapter, before 
being ready for use. 

Mould-made papers are made by machine as far as 
making the sheets is concerned, other operations being 
carried out as for hand-made papers. The moulding or 
forming of the sheet is carried out in different ways on 
different machines, but the construction of the machines 
being kept secret by their users, it is not possible to 
give a description here. 



CHAPTER IV 

PAPERMAKING BY MACHINE 

The Fourdrinier machine bears the same relation to the 
hand mould that the rotary press does to the hand 
press. Instead of making paper sheet by sheet, it 
makes it in a continuous web, on an endless band of 
woven wire. The machine in a much simpler form was 
invented by a Frenchman, Nicholas Robert, the first 
machine being made in 1799, and so rapidly did the 
machine find favour that in fifty years over 150 paper- 
making machines were at work. 

Papermaking by hand involves the processes of 
transferring a certain and regular quantity of pulp from 
the vat to the mould, shaking the mould to felt the 
fibres and to remove the water, couching the paper and 
drying the waterleaf Machine-made paper follows the 
same processes exactly, everything being done by the 
one machine, including sizing. Viewing the paper- 
making machine, it appears to be a collection of 
machines carrying out the separate functions in proper 
sequence. The different parts of the machine can be 
controlled and driven at different speeds for special 
reasons. Thus a definite and regular quantity of pulp 
is taken, shaken, the water removed, the soft paper 
couched, pressed, dried, and a finish given to the surface 
of the paper, all in the compass of the one machine. 

The pulp as left at the end of Chapter II. was 
merely beaten fibre, and if an unsized paper were 



PAPERMAKING BY MACHINE 



19 




fS 



>*- oefiMC, CTi..r^^fei) 






K^ 



Hl^^ff4 



-^ /I l\ ■•ST 



^U' 



H^^^^P 



^E^ 



L -^y I 



u 



OBYiNt^ Crc NOcSS 



UILM_j 




Fig. 5.— Diagram showing elevation of Papermaking Machine. Shown in Sections. 

Total length of machine 144 feet. 

(Built by Bertrams Limited, Sciennes, Edinburgh.) 



20 PAPER AND ITS USES 

required the pulp would be let down to the stuff-chest ; 
but usually other things are added before the pulp is 
ready for the machine. Filling or loading, colouring 
matter and sizing material, are mixed with the pulp, 
thoroughly incorporated, and then the engine is emptied. 

Paper can be made without filling or loading ; in 
fact all-rag papers seldom contain mineral matter, and 
many excellent papers are made from other fibres with- 
out loading. The purposes of loading are to fill the 
spaces between the fibres, to give opacity to papers, 
such as those made of sulphite wood pulp, which would 
otherwise be very transparent, and to enable the paper 
to take a higher finish than would be possible in a 
paper without loading : a smoother and more absorb- 
ent, even if a little weaker, sheet resulting. In a 
blotting paper mineral matter is an adulteration ; in 
writing papers 5 per cent, is sufficient for improve- 
ment of surface ; in printings 10 to 16 per cent, is 
as much as is permissible. In an imitation art paper 
as much as 25 per cent, may be added, and yet a 
serviceable paper result ; but of course the tenderness 
of imitation art paper will be present. 

China clay is the usual material used for filling or 
loading. It is mixed with water, and strained before 
filling into the beating engine, and the colour is added, 
either to produce a coloured paper, or to correct the 
tendency to greyness in the finished paper. In the 
latter case, a little blue and perhaps a little red is 
added, while in the former case the colour ma}^ be 
added, or formed in situ by the mixture of different 
chemicals in the beating engine. Dry colours, whether 
pigment as ultramarine or aniline colours, are mixed 
with water (dry patches being difficult to deal with in 
the pulp), and then added to the pulp in the engine ; 
when the colours are thoroughly mixed, alum is put 



PAPERMAKING BY MACHINE 21 

in. Alum serves to mordant or fix the colour, and also 
serves to precipitate the resin size which is next added. 

There are various prepared sizes on the market to 
take the place of the size prepared by the papermaker 
from resin and a solution of soda. The resin is melted 
and added to the soda solution, and boiled until the 
solution is complete. The size solution is added to the 
pulp in the beating engine, and thus we get a clue to 
the meaning of E.S., or engine-sized paper. 

The pulp now consists of innumerable fibres, to 
which and in which are fixed small particles of china 
clay, colouring matter, and resin. In many writing 
papers a small amount of starch paste is added, and 
that also adheres to the tiny fibres. The engine is 
emptied by gravity into the stuff- chest, where the 
revolving arms keep the fibres in the mixture from 
precipitation. Then there is a short journey to the 
machine, during which the pulp undergoes great tribu- 
lation, first being dihited with a large quantity of water, 
then passing over sand traps which intercept grit, 
metallic fragments, and such matter that is heavier than 
the pulp and so tends to sink, and then through strainers, 
which retain foreign matter, unbeaten particles, and 
knots of fibre. The flow of pulp is governed by a 
system of valves, which can be quickly manipulated to 
alter the substance of the resulting paper. 

The wet end of the machine consists of an endless 
band of woven wire, some 40 to 80 meshes to the inch, 
from 48 to 205 inches wide, and a total length of 
40 feet or more. The length of wire in use at one time 
as a paper mould is less than half its total length. This 
woven wire corresponds to the mould of the vatman in 
hand-making. Deckle straps, the substitutes for the 
vatman's deckle, are thick endless rubber bands, square 
in section, which rest on the wire cloth, and, following 



22 



PAPER AND ITS USES 



the travel of the wire, return over pulleys, serving the 
same purpose as the deckle, namely, to confine the pulp 
to the wire surface. The wire cloth is supported by a 
number of rollers — tube rolls — which keep the wire from 
oscillating, and assist the passage of the water through 
the wire. The end of the wire nearest the stuff-chest 
is kept shaking backwards and forwards to cause the 



t^mm m i mmmm m mmmmom 




Fig. 6. — Front View from Strainers of 94-inch Papermaking 
Machine. 
* (Built by Bertrams Limited, Sciennes, Edinburgh.) 



fibres to felt before the water has passed through the 
wire. The pulp passes from the strainers under a slice, 
which distributes the pulp evenly, over a rubber apron, 
on to the machine wire, and near the end of the wire 
will be seen a cylinder of wire above, and square boxes 
below the wire. 



PAPERMAKING BY MACHINE 23 

The cylinder is the dandy roll, which closes the 
surface o( the paper with slight pressure, and if a water- 
mark is required the soft pulp is impressed with the 
design upon the surface of the roll. If the paper is to 
be " laid " the cylinder will be covered with laid wires, 
with tying wires at regular intervals, but a wove paper 
has a woven dandy roll which leaves no mark beyond 
any watermark that may be on its surface. A dandy 
roll on which the tying wires run the length of the roll 
instead of round the circumference is known as a spiral 
laid dandy roll. 

The boxes beneath the wire are suction boxes, 
open mouth of pumps which suck the remaining water 
from the paper. The wet end is well named, as for 
every ton of paper nearly 20,000 gallons of water are 
used for the dilution of the pulp, so that it may flow 
evenly and regularly. This water passes through the 
wire, most of it falling into the save-all and is used again 
for diluting the pulp. 

Passing under the dandy roll and over the last 
suction box, the wire carries the web of paper through 
the couch rolls, where the paper is couched or pressed 
by a felt-covered roll for the same reason as hand- 
made papers are couched : to consolidate the paper. 
The wire returns to perform its operations continuously, 
and the limp paper is carried forward to the press 
rolls, where it is further pressed by polished rollers, 
first one side, then the other, to remove the wire 
and felt marks. Then the paper goes forward to the 
drying cylinders — massive rolls heated by interior 
steam ; but the heat is so regulated that it is gradually 
increased, and the speed at which the web of paper 
travels is arranged so that no undue tension is placed 
upon the paper, or thinning might result, or the web be 
broken, and delay caused. The drying section of the 




Fig. 7. — End of Wove Dandy Rc)ll. 




Fig. 8.— End of Laid Dandy Roll. 




Fig. 9.— End of Spiral Laid Dandy Roll. 
24 



PAPERMAKING BY MACHINE 25 

machine is a very quiet place compared with the wet 
end. 

At the end of the machine are stacks of rolls 
through which the paper is led if it is to receive what 
is known as " machine finish." If, however, the paper 
is to be super-calendered, it is led past one or more of 
the stacks of rolls, and as it is reeled off a fine spray 
of water is projected upon the paper. There are 
various means of producing a misty cloud, but the 
object is the same in every case, to restore some of 
the moisture which has been driven off, and to prepare 
the paper to receive the finish at the super-calenders. 
If the paper were finished bone dry it would not be 
possible to impart the required surface by super- 
calendering, and, too, the paper would at the first 
opportunity absorb moisture from the atmosphere, and 
various troubles would arise. The paper, now reeled, 
is ready for the finishing department, to which the next 
chapter is devoted. 

Papermaking on the Yankee or single cylinder 
machine is conducted in the same manner as on the 
ordinary or Fourdrinier machine as far as the wet end 
is concerned, but the series of drying cylinders is 
replaced by a single cylinder of large diameter, as much 
as lO feet in some instances: the paper passing round 
this heated cylinder is dried, and glazed on one side, 
hence the term M.G., or machine-glazed paper. 

Mill numbers survive from the time when all mills 
were registered, and when paper was a dutiable article. 
The duty was repealed in 1861, but the mill numbers 
remain, and are additional to watermarks in distinguish- 
ing between papers of the various makers. 

Watermarks have been used from very early times 
to serve as marks of distinction. The watermark used 
by John Tate of Stevenage in 1494 was an eight- 




a, 



'fcJD 



PAPERMAKING BY MACHINE 27 

petalled flower. The cap and bells, post horn, crown, 
fleur-de-lis, and tankard have been associated with 
foolscap, post, crown, royal, and pott respectively, but 
the connection between size and watermark is not very 
close. At present foolscap papers frequently bear the , 
figure of Britannia, and royal papers a shield, with bend 
sinister, surmounted by the fleur-de-lis. The register 
of watermarks consists of a large number of names 
which are intended to make the papers bearing them 
proprietary articles, and as the quality of the paper is 
maintained by the papermaker, there is almost an 
indirect virtue in watermarks. Special watermarks are 
sometimes designed for special editions or for paper for 
special purposes, the dandy roll being made in length 
and diameter to suit the size of the paper to be made. 
Watermarks on hand moulds are placed in position on 
the moulds, and there is no difficulty in cutting the 
paper to obtain register of the marks, as in the case 
of machine-made papers. 



CHAPTER V 

FINISHING 

Papers which have reached the stage described in 
Chapters HI. and IV. still have much to be done to 
them before the consumer, stationer, or printer can 
receive them. Finishing varies with different papers. 
Hand-made paper requires sizing, drying, glazing, sort- 
ing, counting (sometimes cutting), and packing before 
it is ready for despatch. If the machine-made paper 
is for writing, it may be gelatine sized, followed by 
drying, re-reeling, glazmg, cutting into sheets, sorting, 
counting, and packing into reams. Printing papers 
are finished with " machine " or with super-calender or 
water finish, and other papers with friction-glazed or 
flint-glazed surfaces, the other operations following as 
for other papers after glazing. 

Tub sizing always means animal sizing. Some mills 
still prepare their gelatine from hide cuttings, parchment 
cuttings, and other materials which yield gelatine, but 
the tendency is to eliminate this process and to buy the 
gelatine in sheet form ready for use without any process 
other than reduction to a solution of such strength as 
is necessary. The tub or vat of size is prepared and 
kept at an even temperature, the paper is dipped or 
allowed to stand in the size, or there are machines 
which carry the paper slowly through the trough of 
gelatine. The size must permeate the paper in order 
to make the sizing effective. On emerging, the paper 

28 



FINISHING 29 

is squeezed to remove the excess of size, and the sheets 
are separated to prevent the paper from becoming a 
solid block. 

The second visit to the drying loft prepares the 
paper for the last stages of manufacture. The drying 
is conducted at a moderately low temperature (for 
papermakers), not exceeding 80° Fahr., and when 
dry the paper has its bulk reduced and its surface 
improved by plate rolling, unless it is a drawing paper 
with a " not," that is, a rough surface. Plate rolling 
necessitates building a pile of paper, alternated with 
zinc plates a little larger than the paper, unbuilding 
and building of piles proceeding simultaneously as in 
the case of taking out set-off sheets and interleaving 
newly printed work. One girl takes the glazed paper, 
a second removes the plates, a third feeds the unglazed 
paper to the plates. When the pile is high enough it 
is lifted to the pressing rolls by a man who feeds it 
between the rollers, where great pressure is given, and 
the pile automatically returns to the front of the 
machine, and it is turned and placed for pressing the 
other way of the sheet. From two to a dozen pressings 
will be given according to the degree of finish required, 
and also to the hardness of the material. 

Sorting, counting, and packing will complete the 
cycle of operations included in finishing, unless cutting 
to size is also necessary. Girls stand at long benches 
lighted with large windows, and have piles of paper 
before them for sorting into three classes — good, 
middling, bad — according to the degree or absence of 
defects. The middling paper showing slight defects 
is known as " retree," the reams are marked x X , and 
the paper is sold at 10 per cent, reduction' on the price 
for good paper. Bad paper, showing glaring defects, is 
called " broke," the reams are marked x x x , and it is 



30 PAPER AND ITS USES 

either sold at a further reduction or is returned to be 
repulped. If the order is for specially watermarked 
paper, or is for all " insides " or good paper, the " re- 
tree " and " broke " will both return for re-making. 

Machine-made writing papers which are to be 
sized with gelatine are usually first sized with resin, so 
do not come forward as waterleaf The sizing room is 
long, high, comparatively narrow, containing a small 
sizing machine and numerous drying cylinders. The 
reel of paper is mounted on brackets in front of the 
sizing trough, the web passes between metal rollers, be- 
neath the surface of the warm size, out and between 
squeezing rolls which remove the excess of gelatine, 
and then forward for drying. Up to the roof, and down 
to the floor, over skeleton drums, the web of paper travels 
until it is thoroughly dried, in a temperature equal 
to that of the drying lofts. At the end of the room 
the paper is reeled again, and when in a fit state goes 
either to the super-calenders, or, if the paper is to 
be plate-rolled, it is cut and the surface imparted as 
described for hand-made papers. 

Papers which are merely to have " machine-finish," 
that is, the surface imparted by the calenders of the 
paper machine, receive no further treatment before 
being cut into sheets. Those papers which are to 
be super-calendered (S.C.) pass through a large super- 
calendering machine, consisting of a number of chilled 
iron rolls and rolls of compressed cotton or .paper 
alternately. The weight of the rolls is enormous, 
and although extra pressure can be applied, it is not 
often necessary. A very high degree of finish can 
be given by means of the super-calenders, and the 
majority of papers with a glazed finish have passed 
through this machine. 

Papers which are to receive a water finish are 



FINISHING 



31 



aiven a film of water on the surface just before the 
S passes between the rolls of the super-calender, and 




TEN ROLL 
VIEB GLAZING CALENDER 

cone WORD "TENRILHO' 



Fig. ii.-Web Glazing Calender or Super-Calender. 
(Built by Bertrams Limited, Sciennes, Edinburgh.) 

as a result the mineral constituent of the paper is 
brought to the surface, and a very level fin.sh, w.th 
a hi-h degree of polish, is imparted to the paper. 



32 PAPER AND ITS USES 

Friction glazing produces a higher poHsh than 
the processes already described. The machine is 
simple in construction, consisting of a pile of three 
rolls, one of cotton between two of steel. The paper 
passes between two only, and the top roll, being driven 
at a higher speed than the others, burnishes the side of 
the paper against which it is driven in a much more 
effective manner than the super-calenders. 

Flint-glazed papers are actually burnished by the 
surface of a stone passing rapidly backwards and 
forwards on the surface of the paper as it emerges 
from the rolls, giving a hard brilliant polish. The same 
degree of finish is imparted to some papers by the use 
of a number of brushes oscillating rapidly upon the 
paper as it travels over a large cylinder. 

Cutting the reels into smaller widths and then into 
single sheets is the function of a number of ingenious 
machines. If a watermarked paper is to be cut to 
register, a single reel is mounted at the cutting machine, 
and the web is advanced the necessary distance and 
the division into sheets takes place by a knife. A boy 
watches the travel of the paper, and when the water- 
mark travels beyond or short of a pointer, a turn of 
a screw brings the next sheet into register. Single 
sheet cutters are used for other papers, the reel is 
mounted, run forward between slitting knives, and a 
swinging knife divides the paper into sheets. Another 
make of machine will take from one to seven reels, and 
the paper passing between the slitters is cut into sheets 
by a revolving cutter, which makes a clean cut the 
whole width of the web, and the sheets are dropped on 
a travelling felt, carried forward to the front of the 
machine, and knocked up by boys or girls. An 
automatic " layer " replaces the boys in some mills, 
keeping the piles knocked up. To prevent waste in 



FINISHING 33 

cutting out blanks, envelope papers are cut at an 
angle, this being accomplished by swinging the frame 
carrying the revolving knife to the desired angle, and 
the papers are delivered in sheets ready for the 
envelope maker. 

From the cutting machines the paper is taken to 
the " salle " — the sorting and packing room of the 
paper mill. A number of girls rapidly examine every 
sheet of paper, withdrawing those sheets which fall 
below the papermaker's standard of perfection, sorting 
into retree and broke proceeding as in the case of 
hand-made papers. Counting, cutting, and packing 
take place very quickly after the paper is sorted. The 
nimble fingers of the counters turn up the edge of a 
quantity of paper, the fingers of the other hand run 
down the edges quickly, counting into reams with 
extraordinary accuracy. Some papers are trimmed 
before packing, while others are cut from double to 
single sheets. Wrappers are carefully folded round 
the paper, and fastening is done by means of string, 
tape, or paper tape according to the size and weight of 
the reams. 

As will be seen from " Paper Trade Customs," on 
page 135, the number of sheets to the ream is a vary- 
ing quantity. A ream may consist of 472, 480, 500, 
504 or 516 sheets. 

In hand-made papers a mill ream consists of two 
qualities of the same paper, whether the paper is bought 
as good or retree. If the paper is good it will consist 
of 18 quires of insides or best paper, each quire 
containing 24 sheets, and two quires of outsides or 
slightly inferior paper, the quires containing 20 sheets 
each. '* Retree " paper is marked on the outside by 
two crosses x x , and the mill ream will be 472 sheets, 
whether the paper be good or retree. The price of 

3 



34 PAPER AND ITS USES 

a ream of insides is usually lo per cent, above the 
price for a mill ream. 

Machine-made paper is good, retree, and outsides, 
the prices being lo and 20 per cent, less for the second 
and third qualities respectively. Paper is usually 
supplied in inside reams of 480 sheets, that is, all good 
paper, but the papermaker may supply mill reams of 
480 sheets, but with a quire of outsides at the top and 
bottom. The ream of 480 sheets is also known as 
the stationer's ream — writing, drawing, cartridge, and 
fancy papers being packed in that quantity. Paper 
classed as news is packed in 500's, envelope papers in 
504's, and many printing papers in perfect or printer's 
reams of 5 1 6 sheets. 

The variety of reams suggests that it might be well 
to move for a standard ream of 500 sheets. The 
present system makes for confusion in giving out 
paper, keeping stock, estimating and pricing out, and a 
simplification should be welcomed. 



CHAPTER VI 

MANUFACTURE OF BOARDS 

The manufacture of boards is varied, ranging from 
Bristol boards to millboards, and including ivory 
boards, pasteboards, triplex boards, strawboards, and 
pulp boards. 

For pulp boards the description of papermaking 
will serve in its entirety, as the boards are made on the 
Fourdrinier, being engine-sized, reeled at the end of the 
machine, well rolled later, cut into sheets, sometimes 
plate-glazed after this, and then sorted and packed. 
There is one point of variation only, and that is 
in speed. As there is much more "stuff" let down to 
the wire, a greater thickness of material for the water 
to drain from demands more time, and so the output 
is relatively slower than when paper is being made. 

For ivory boards, two or more sheets of fine paper 
made on a Fourdrinier, or else on a cylinder machine, 
are brought together at the couch rolls, and the sheets 
are pressed and rolled together without the use of 
paste. 

Cylinder machines are invariably used for duplex, 
triplex, and boards of several layers other than paste 
boards and those already described. Instead of a 
travelling wire, a wire-covered cylinder is the means of 
forming the film of pulp. The cylinder revolves in a 
vat of pulp, takes up a thin layer of the fibre, and, 
pressing against a travelling felt, leaves its film of 

35 



36 PAPER AND ITS USES 

paper, and as there are several cylinders, each in its 
own vat, producing paper in the same way, the several 
webs are brought together, rolled, dried, and reeled. 
In the case of a duplex board the pulp maj^ be the 
same colour, or of two different shades. In triplex 
boards, the outsides are frequently thin aftd different 
in colour, compared with the middle sheet. Cylinder 
machines with as many as seven vats are 'tn use, and 
forty to fifty drying cylinders are necessary tcT complete 
the extraction of the water. 

Pasteboards are made up from middles and past- 
ings. These are obtained from mills making special- 
ities of these lines, the middles very often consisting 
of a moderately thick paper of poor quality, but the 
outsides are of fairly fine paper. The papers are not 
glazed, but after pasting together the web is thoroughly 
rolled and the surface obtained by subsequent calender- 
ing. Bristol boards are made from the finest materials, 
all-rag, tub-sized papers, the same paper throughout 
pasted, pressed and surfaced by hot-pressing. Other 
boards supplied under this title are made of good 
drawing paper for outsides, and cartridge for middles. 
The best boards are made by hand, and take con- 
siderable time and care in manufacture. 

Millboards, the thicker kinds of box boards, slate 
boards, leather boards, portmanteau boards, and carriage 
panels are made on a special board machine. For 
leather boards a large percentage of pulped leather is 
sometimes employed. For the other kinds a large variety 
of materials finds its way to the machine, but it is waste 
in the form of flax, ropes, coarse rags for the best 
qualities, and for the lower grades waste papers of all 
kinds. The stronger materials are boiled and beaten, 
bleaching being unnecessary. Waste papers are simply 
steamed and pulped. All materials are strained, diluted 



MANUFACTURE OF BOARDS 37 

with water, and forwarded to the vat or stuff-chest of 
the machine. The board machine is comparatively 
short, consisting of a cylinder which lifts the film of 
pulp, delivers it to the endless felt, and a cylinder at 
the other end of the machine receives the web, which 
continues to roll round until the desired thickness is 
attained, when the wet board is dexterously slit by the 
attendant, and taken off to the pile. Here the boards 
are alternated with sheets of felt or canvas, and the 
water is pressed out. The boards are hung up singly 
to dry in a heated chamber, and are afterwards damped 
slightly, rolled heavily, and cut to size. 



CHAPTER VII 

WRITING PAPERS 

A LARGE variety of papers falls under the heading of 
writing papers : account book, bank, bond, cheque, 
ledger, loan, and typewriter papers being placed in this 
category. The printer uses writing papers of all kinds, 
some as superior printings, and others he prepares as 
stationery, or prints some part of a document upon 
them for subsequent filling in or completion. 

Writing papers must be smooth and hard-sized to 
fulfil their purpose of bearing writing ink, and other 
qualities will depend upon the use for which they are 
destined. The fibres used include rag, chemical wood, 
esparto, and in the poorest qualities, which but few 
printers or stationers will stock, mechanical wood. 
Writing papers of the highest class are all-rag, tub- 
sized, air-dried, and plate-glazed. Every variety of 
writing paper may be wove or laid without alteration 
in quality ; in fact, most mills make woves and laids 
from the same stuff, merely changing the wove dandy 
roll to one which makes the laid marks on the paper. 
This first class of paper is used for the best stationery, 
for printed and written documents of the highest 
importance which are required to stand a good deal of 
handling, and for ledgers and similar books subject to 
hard wear. Bank-notes are printed on hand -made 
paper, while the papers for stamps, cheques, postal 
orders, and money orders are usually machine-made. 

38 



WRITING PAPERS 39 

Bank-notes, loans and banks demand the use of the 
strongest rags, such as linen, duck, and sail-cloth. 
The fibres are drawn out rather than cut up, the result- 
ing paper being hard and resistant to wear. Bank- 
notes are cream wove ; banks, cream wove or blue 
wove ; loans are cream wove. Being hand-made the 
sizing, drying, and finishing are carried out as described 
in Chapter V. 

Ledger or account book papers may be hand- or 
machine-made, and are usually azure or blue laid. If 
machine-made, the characteristics of the hand-made 
papers are as far as possible retained : strength, hard 
tub-sized surface, opacity, moderate finish, both sides 
alike in surface. To attain these qualities the same 
materials are employed, an all-rag furnish with a fair 
proportion of strong linen, prolonged beating to draw 
out the fibres, a shake to ensure good felting, slow 
drying to allow gradual contraction, tub-sizing, air- 
drying over skeleton drums will attain the desired end. 
The finish of ledger or account book papers is not 
quite so high as that for loan papers, but it must be 
equal for both sides of the sheet, in order that writing 
may be done easily on all pages of the books. The 
sizing must be thorough, or the ink will sink through 
the paper, and if erasures are made, the abraded surface 
will not take ink without spreading. 

Machine-made bond or loan papers are not always 
all-rag papers, and are not essentially tub-sized, but 
the best of the class will be all-rag, tub-sized papers. 
One paper mill carries an enormous stock of high 
class engine-sized bond and bank papers in eighteen 
colours, and each of these in six substances. Bank 
papers are thinner than bonds, the usual substances 
being foolscap 7 lb., large post i i lb., medium i 3 lb. 
Here again the best papers are all -rag, tub -sized. 



40 PAPER AND ITS USES 

and while a very good chemical wood, tub - sized, 
super-calendered bank paper is obtainable, papers of 
the best quality, such as " 3009 Extra Strong," always 
command a high price, being extremely strong and 
durable. Typewriting papers are similar to bank 
papers, but usually have a matt finish to prevent the 
smearing that may always take place on a highly 
polished paper, as the typewritten characters are not 
indented into the paper, but the colour is on the 
surface. Watermarked typewriting papers are well 
known, and the prices vary according to the substance 
and fibrous constituents of the papers, thin papers (8 lb. 
large post) costing nearly twice the price per pound for 
which 16 lb. large post can be purchased. 

Cheque papers are strong, even in texture, and 
present a good surface for printing. There is a fair 
range of papers to choose from for cheque printing, 
without taking into consideration safety cheque papers. 

As the same pulp may be wove or laid, so may 
the colour be varied without changing the quality. 
Cream wove, blue wove, yellow wove, cream laid, 
azure laid, blue laid, or tinted papers may be made 
from the same stuff, the colouring matter added giving 
the necessary difference in tint, the description of 
the paper varying accordingly. There are, of course, 
certain cases where one or other is preferred, but the 
quality is neither indicated by the colour of the paper 
nor by the pattern of the dandy roll employed. The 
surface may be rough (antique), moderately smooth 
(machine finish, vellum, ivory), or highly glazed (super- 
calendered or plate-glazed), each being attained by the 
different treatment in finishing the paper. Papers made 
entirely of rag will always be tub-sized, air-dried, and 
frequently plate-glazed, but papers which are only partly 
rag, and even chemical wood papers, are sometimes tub- 



WRITING PAPERS 4I 

sized, but as a rule papers which contain no rag fibre 
are sized in the pulp, that is, engine-sized. The large 
variety of high-class engine-sized papers now obtainable 
is at once creditable to the enterprise of the manu- 
facturers, and a sign that papers of this description 
fulfil the requirements of a large body of consumers. 

A good deal of writing paper is used for printing, 
from which it might be inferred that there is a close 
resemblance between printings and engine-sized writings. 
The sizing of writings is harder than that of printings, 
and the materials used are manipulated to give a firmer 
handle to the paper, but there is no reason why all 
writing papers should not be used as printings in 
work of the character of booklets, magazines without 
illustrations, and a large part of the jobbing work which 
keeps to leaflet and pamphlet sizes. The nature of 
writing papers makes them less absorbent than print- 
ings, so that the ink does not sink into the paper 
quickly. This is desirable in the case of writing, but 
not in the case of printing, where a fair absorbency aids 
the rapid drying of printed work. 

Drawing papers are made in various qualities. The 
best kinds for water-colour drawings are made from 
strong rags, chiefly linen, only boiled to remove dirt 
and other impurities, and reduced to pulp without 
the use of bleach or other chemicals. Hand-made 
papers are the best, being tub-sized, air-dried, and 
the surfaces — rough, " not " (matt), or hot pressed — 
obtained by pressure, not by rolling. A few high-class 
mills are responsible for machine-made drawings similar 
in furnish and finish to those made by hand. Engine- 
sized drawing papers are more like cartridge papers, 
but some of the cheaper varieties resemble thick toned 
printings. Cartridge papers are made from long-fibred 
stuff which is only partly bleached. Some cartridges 



42 PAPER AND ITS USES 

are tub-sized, and the papers serve as substitutes for 
drawing papers. Being very strong they make excel- 
lent cover papers for books and lists of various kinds. 
Crayon papers are coloured or tinted drawing papers 
used for crayon and water-colour work. 



CHAPTER VIII 

PRINTING PAPERS 

There is considerable variety in printing papers, as 
regards fibre, sizing, and surface. As generally under- 
stood, printings are papers of good colour, not too 
hard-sized, of good surface, even in texture, fairly 
opaque, showing a clear look-through, free from specks 
and spots. The fibrous composition will depend largely 
upon the price. An all-rag paper is a splendid white 
paper, soft to print upon, pleasant to handle, very 
durable, and a type of moderate colour printed with a 
good black ink gives a very rich appearance on such 
paper. Hand-made, Dutch hand-made, mould-made, 
and machine-made rag papers are the papers for very 
special editions. Special moulds or dandy rolls are 
sometimes made for these papers to secure a distinctive 
appearance. 

High-grade printing papers are produced from a 
mixture of rag and esparto fibres, a soft paper, taking 
a good finish, being produced. A blend of chemical 
wood and esparto, skilfully manufactured, produces a 
very good printing paper for all ordinary purposes, and 
papers composed entirely of chemical wood may be 
good or indifferent according to the treatment and skill 
devoted to their production. Sulphite papers tend to 
be harsh and transparent, but a mixture of soda pulp 
partly counteracts these faults, and even if it is not quite 
as soft as an esparto mixture, excellent results in print- 



44 PAPER AND ITS USES 

ing can be obtained if the fibres have been carefully 
beaten and blended. Papers containing mechanical 
wood are classed as common printings, and are suit- 
able only for common work. A small proportion of 
mechanical wood may not be noticeable in the finished 
paper, but when a large proportion is used, greyness of 
colour and poorness of appearance are sure indications 
of the low quality of the material. Hand- and mould- 
made papers have no mineral filling in their composition. 
For machine-made papers the addition of a small 
proportion enables them to take a very good finish. 
The amount of china clay present in the finished paper 
should not exceed lo per cent, of the total weight. 

Hand-made and mould-made printings are tub- 
sized and plate-rolled, without giving a high glaze to 
the paper. Machine-made printings are engine-sized, 
hard or soft according to the use to which the paper is 
to be put, and sometimes the surface will govern the 
sizing, some papers being hard-sized and super- 
calendered, others soft-sized and with only machine 
finish. As a matter of fact, super-calendered printings 
are used largely for illustrated work, and with half-tone 
blocks the ink must dry thoroughly and fairly quickly, 
so the paper is not hard-sized. All thin printings 
require to be well sized to prevent the ink sinking right 
through the paper, and most papers with machine finish, 
excepting the commoner news, are usually well sized, 
and coloured printings, too, incline to hard-sizing. 

The best Bible papers are made of rag fibres with 
a fair amount of loading, and some starch to ensure 
opacity and good printing qualities. The Oxford India 
paper is still manufactured under special conditions 
which are kept secret, but there are many imitations 
which serve excellently for the purpose of thin paper 
editions. The graphic demonstration of the difference 



PRINTING PAPERS 45 

between the thickness of the " Encyclopaedia Britannica" 
printed upon India paper and ordinary printing paper 
will be fresh in the minds of most readers. 

Toned papers are made of the same materials as 
white paper, the creamy colour being obtained by the 
addition of a small amount of colouring matter to the 

pulp. 

Featherweight papers are made entirely of esparto, 
very little sizing is added, no loading is used, the paper 
is treated so that the wire and felt marks are not easily 
visible, and the drying and finishing are carried out so 
as to retain the bulkiness of paper. It must always be 
remembered that all papers made under such conditions 
are not durable, and therefore should never be used for 
work which must withstand any considerable handling. 
Coloured and tinted papers are made of the same 
materials as white printings, but usually the fibres will 
be chemical wood and esparto, all chemical, or a 
mixture of chemical and mechanical wood pulps. The 
variety of tints in which papers can be obtained is very 
extensive, and this is impressed upon one when trying 
to match up some particular shade, when it appears as 
though makers have many substitutes for the desired 
colour. The colours of papers should be fairly fast to 
light, and with the large variety obtainable by the use 
of the pigments and dyes now on the market, paper- 
makers manage to offer a long range of fast colours. 
Although it may not always be so, fastness usually 
follows the price of the paper, the cheapest being the 
most liable to fade quickly. Delicate tints are more 
expensive because of the necessity of a better quality 
of paper to take the colours evenly and cleanly. 
Coloured printing papers should be fairly well sized, 
well finished, and free from spots and specks. 

In addition to possessing the good qualities of 



46 PAPER AND ITS USES 

printings, lithographic papers must be firm and free 
from permanent stretch. In letterpress printing, only a 
portion of the paper is pressed by the printing surface, 
but in lithography the whole of the paper is brought 
into contact with the stone or other surface. If the 
printing surface is full or solid, as in the case of printing 
a ground tint, the pull on the surface of the paper is 
heavy, and unless the paper is well made the surface 
will pluck or pull up in patches, or even all over the 
sheet. The pressure exerts a stretching influence on 
the paper, and the moisture from damping induces 
expansion of the sheet. Lithographic papers require 
special care in selection of material and manufacture, so 
as to introduce and preserve all the necessary qualities 
of easy printing, perfect register, and quick drying. 

Esparto fibre is short and soft, prints easily, and 
experience has proved that esparto papers stretch 
less than most other papers, and therefore litho papers 
usually contain a large proportion of this useful material. 
An all-rag litho. paper is the first quality ; then rag and 
esparto, all esparto, chemical wood and esparto, mark 
the various grades of paper for lithographic printing. 
While the papers should not be hard-sized, they should 
not err on the other side, or absorption of moisture 
may cause trouble when registering. Soft materials, 
beaten quickly, dried gradually, not drawn too fast by 
the drying cylinders, are necessary to produce a 
satisfactory paper. The surface must be perfectly 
smooth, and this is obtained by super-calendering or 
plate-glazing, both of which tend to reduce the liability 
of the papers to stretch. The latter method is the 
better but more expensive method of producing the 
desired surface, and by turning the piles of paper and 
rolling in each direction of the sheet, subsequent stretch 
in working is reduced to a minimum. 



PRINTING PAPERS 47 

Plate papers are fine papers, soft-sized, lightly 
rolled, usually having one side only with a smooth 
finish. Thick plate papers are made by rolling two 
or more webs of wet paper together, and finishing as 
usual. The softness of the paper enables it to take all 
the ink from the finest lines of the steel or copper 
plates printed upon the surface. 

Poster paper for lithographic or letterpress printing 
is made with a rough back to enable pasting to hoard- 
ings to take place more easily. These papers are 
made on the single cylinder machine, and, having only 
one side glazed — the printing side — are known as 
M.G. poster papers. 

Imitation art papers are distinctly between super- 
calendered printings and art papers in printing quality, 
but they lack strength, owing to the method of their 
manufacture. Art paper has a mineral coating, while 
imitation art has a large percentage (about 2 5 per cent.) 
of china clay mixed with the pulp. China clay, having 
no cohesion, does not assist in felting the paper in any 
way, but tends to weaken its resistance to wear. That 
weakness or tenderness is one feature of imitation art 
papers. After leaving the paper machine the paper 
is super-calendered, receiving a water finish, that is, the 
paper is just wetted on the surface immediately before 
entering the rolls of the calender. The loading is thus 
brought to the surface, and a very smooth level sheet is 
produced, only a little inferior, as a printing surface, to 
art paper. Being opaque, suitable for half-tone printing, 
and of good appearance, imitation art is used largely for 
illustrated magazine work, and serves the purpose well, 
but it should be remembered that the large proportion 
of mineral matter renders the paper liable to disintegra- 
tion from frequent handling. 



CHAPTER IX 

COATED PAPERS AND BOARDS 

Coated papers comprise those to which, after manu- 
facture as paper, a mineral coating, white or coloured, 
is applied, in order to produce a smooth unbroken 
surface for the reception of fine printed work. Art, 
chromo, enamel, and surface-coloured papers are all 
coated after the body paper is made. 

Art papers may be made of rag, esparto, chemical 
wood, or chemical and mechanical wood, or a mixture 
of any of the fibres. The body paper is carefully 
made, its ultimate state being kept in mind, and it 
is fairly well sized, but without a high glaze. The 
surface is kept so that the coating will cover properly 
and the adhesive be fully effective in holding the 
mineral. The operations comprise coating, drying, 
and finishing. The coating is carried out on a com- 
pact machine. A mixture of china clay, glue, and 
water is supplied at a constant level to the feed trough 
of the machine, from which it is transferred to paper 
by means of a roller and felt ; oscillating and stationary 
brushes rub the coating into the paper, filling up all 
inequalities and leaving a smooth film on the surface. 
The purpose of the coating is to give a perfectly smooth 
surface, obliterating entirely the marks of the machine 
wire and felts, and to do this effectively the consistency 
of the mixture is regulated so that it may enter the 
minute depressions and deposit sufficient matter to take 

48 



COATED PAPERS AND BOARDS 4^ 

a good finish. An ingenious overhead railway carries 
the web forward in a series of loops supported on a 
series of rods, hot air driven forward by mechanical 
fans effecting the drying. If the paper is two-sided 
art, it is reeled and the operations repeated on the other 
side of the paper. As the coating is slightly thicker 
at the edges of the web, these edges are trimmed off, 
and the web goes forward for one or more journeys 
through the super-calender rolls. Dull art and papers 
with a specially high finish receive slightly different 
treatment, the surface in all cases being made perfectly 
smooth in order that the finest half-tones may be 
printed successfully. 

Chromo papers are usually coated on one side only, 
and the body paper is stouter than that used for art 
papers. Used largely for lithography, the paper must 
be as free from stretch as possible. This is obtained 
as described in the chapter on the reduction to pulp, 
by using soft fibres, sharp beater knives, and cutting up 
quickly, this treatment producing what the papermaker 
knows as " free " pulp, as distinguished from " wet " 
pulp, which, owing to prolonged treatment, combines 
with some of the water and actually becomes " wet." 
The surface of chromo papers may be dull or highly 
glazed. 

Surface coloured enamelled papers are used largely 
by box-makers, for labels for packets of various 
commodities, and also as end papers for books. The 
coating and body paper are thinner than for art papers, 
the colour is obtained by the use of a pigment or an 
aniline colour, and the coating and after-treatment are 
exactly as in the case of art papers. Flint-glazed 
surface papers are used for the same purposes as 
surface-enamelled papers, and have a hard burnished 
surface obtained by a stone burnisher travelling back- 



50 PAPER AND ITS USES 

wards and forwards across the surface of the paper as 
it emerges from the calender rolls. 

Boards may be coated in the same way as paper, 
provided the boards are not too thick. The thicker 
qualities are either coated on a modified machine, the 
looping being impossible, or coating by hand is resorted 
to. The boards are obtainable as one- or two-sided, 
with different degrees of surface, and with different 
coloured coatings. Coated boards are sometimes made 
by pasting coated papers to ordinary middles, and 
finishing by plate rolling. 

Thin box boards for use as cartons for small goods, 
such as cigarette packets, are coated with a coloured 
coating in the manner already described. 

Coloured cloth-lined cards are first manufactured as 
pasteboards, and are afterwards coated on the cloth 
side with the coloured coating, two applications being 
necessary in many cases to obtain the desired thickness 
and surface. Plate-glazing is the means of imparting 
the ordinary surface to this class of cards. 



CHAPTER X 

MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS 

Blotting, Duplicating, Copying, Tissue, Cover, 
Gummed, Wrapping 

There are so many varieties of paper which are only 
occasionally encountered that it is better to present 
the whole of them in alphabetical arrangement (see 
Chapter XVII.), and in this section to give a longer 
description of a few representative papers. 

Blottings and filter papers are very similar in 
appearance and manufacture, their definite purposes 
being to absorb moisture, and to filter suspended matter 
from solutions respectively. The description of blotting 
paper manufacture will cover both varieties. The office 
of blotting paper being to absorb ink, the raw material 
is chosen with a view to obtain the most efficient fibre 
for the purpose, soft muslins, too soft for writing papers, 
making excellent blottings. The preliminary treatment 
of the rags has been described already. Beating is 
carried out as quickly as possible, sharp knives being 
used to cut the fibres into short lengths, and not to bruise 
or beat the fibres more finely. As many fibre ends as 
possible must be absorbing on a given area at one 
time, and the shorter the lengths to which the fibres 
are cut, the greater the efficiency of the blotting paper, 
within certain limits. Certain after-treatment of the 
fibre is resorted to, to produce as soft and absorbent a 



52 PAPER AND ITS USES 

fibre as is consistent with the necessary cohesion, but of 
course manufacturers prefer to keep special methods to 
themselves. At the paper machine little or no shake 
is given, and very light pressure is given throughout, 
just sufficient to smooth the paper down. Strength is 
not aimed at, but the paper must be strong enough to 
resist the handling it will receive in ordinary use. 

Most blotting papers are made in demy, with a 
standard weight of 38 lb. per ream of 480 sheets. 
There are blottings made of wood pulp, but these are 
far below the rag papers in efficiency. Soda wood 
pulp makes a very fair blotting paper, but sulphite 
wood is not so absorbent as soda pulp paper. Wood 
pulp blottings are usually made in thin substances for 
interleaving diaries and similar books, where repeated 
use will not be required. Enamelled blotting papers 
are made by pasting enamelled (coated) papers to the 
ordinary blotting paper and rolling down. These 
blottings can be obtained in a variety of colours, both 
the blotting and surface paper being varied in colour. 
Coloured blottings are made of the usual ingredients, 
with added colouring matter. 

Duplicating, impression, and multi - copying are 
different names for the same papers. They are used 
for the various duplicating machines of the cyclostyle 
and mimeograph patterns, where a number of copies of 
written or typewritten matter is required quickly. A 
very thin ink is used, and it is necessary that it should 
be absorbed very speedily. These papers are practi- 
cally unsized, contain a large proportion of esparto for 
the better qualities, and a certain quantity of mechani- 
cal wood in the cheaper sorts. A very large range 
of these papers is obtainable : laid or wove, white, 
cream or tinted, with rough or moderately smooth 
finish. For copies produced by the same process, where 



MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS 53 

a signature has to be appended, or when the form serves 
as a blank for written additions, a half-sized paper 
is obtainable in similar qualities and tints. 

Tissue papers are strong, thin papers, the best 
quality being made from hemp or rag fibre, well beaten, 
with no loading or sizing, made in blue or cream, 
usually double crown in size ; other qualities are made 
from mixtures of rag, chemical wood, and straw, in 
various proportions and in various weights. Tissues 
serve a large number of purposes, as wrappings for 
high-class goods, therefore they must be strong and 
free from chemicals, for fly-leaves for the protection 
of engravings and prints, and also for the basis of 
carbon papers which are used for obtaining a simul- 
taneous copy of written or typewritten documents. 

Copying papers are similar in all respects to tissues, 
but some varieties have a small amount of mineral 
matter added to increase their efficiency. Made in 
cream wove, blue wove, and buff, put up in reams of 
500 sheets, copying papers are used for press copying 
correspondence which has been made in copyable ink. 
Special typewriter ribbons are supplied, but most 
typewritten matter copies without trouble. The leaf 
of the copying book is damped, the excess of moisture 
removed by an absorbent sheet, the document inserted, 
the book closed, and pressed in the copying press. By 
this means copies of correspondence are preserved for 
reference. Copying paper is also made up in rolls for 
copying machines which carry out the damping and 
copying automatically. 

Cover papers are obtainable in many qualities, 
colours, and sizes. The materials used in their manu- 
facture run through the whole range of papermaking 
fibres, the best qualities having a good proportion of 
rag fibre, while the low grades have some quantity 



54 PAPER AND ITS USES 

of mechanical wood, but there should be little if 
any mineral matter present, as strength is an important 
feature. The finish of the papers is smooth, moderately 
rough, or rough ; the colours tend to browns, greys, 
slates, and dark greens, but a fair number of more 
delicate shades can be obtained, and some of the 
reds are most effective. The substances of cover 
papers run from 1 8 lb. to 56 lb. demy per ream of 
480 sheets, so there is sufficient variety from which 
to select paper to suit any job. 

As covers for booklets, price lists, pamphlets, etc., 
cover papers are regularly used, and for other purposes 
there has arisen a demand for the darker shades. The 
army of photographers, professional and amateur, have 
employed cover papers as mounts, either in the form of 
cut mounts or as photographic albums. For these 
purposes the range of substances has been extended, 
the heavy papers being made in card thicknesses. In 
making papers for photographic mounts a very 
necessary quality is that the paper shall be absolutely 
free from chemical substances likely to affect the 
photographic prints mounted upon them. Colour 
prints are mounted on neutral cover papers for 
insertion in magazines or books, but when publications 
have extensive and growing circulations, the time and 
cost of mounting militate against this very effective 
method of displaying illustrations. 

Embossed cover papers are made and finished in the 
usual manner, and run through special rolls having the 
pattern engraved upon them. Papers for embossing 
must possess good strength or the embossed design will 
not stand handling, or the paper may break when 
embossed. 

Pamphlet cover papers are thick tinted papers, 
made in a very pleasing variety, serving as programme 



MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS 55 

papers and for much jobbing work, as well as for the 
purpose for which they were originally intended. 

Covers for exercise books are usually glazed on one 
side only (M.G.). This should be the outside of the 
book, and any printing should be executed on the 
smooth side. " Pressings " are the papers usually 
employed for such purposes, a cheap cover paper 
obtainable in various colours, weights, and sizes. 

Gummed papers are made in a variety of qualities, 
colours, and substances. The papers range from the 
thinnest printing to thick enamelled paper, and the 
thickness of the coating of gum is varied to meet all 
requirements. Many colours of paper can be procured 
ready gummed. To obtain a satisfactory gummed paper 
three things have to be studied : body paper, gum, and 
thickness of coating. The inherent fault of gummed 
papers is the tendency to curl, but the extensive manu- 
facture of non-curling gummed papers has done much 
to remove this bugbear. By adopting a paper which 
is affected but little by atmospheric changes something 
is accomplished in the minimising of curling, but by an 
ingenious breaking of the gummed surface non-curling 
is secured. When the coating is dry, the paper is 
drawn over a steel edge to break the homogeneous 
film of gum into innumerable fragments. In absorb- 
ing or parting with moisture (the cause of curling) the 
small particles can only act as individuals instead of 
combining and curling. Any kind of paper can be 
gummed, but the thinner the paper the more effective 
its adhesion when used as a label. When a label, slip, 
or any printed matter has to cover other printed 
matter, the paper must be thicker and opaque enough to 
prevent the matter beneath from showing through. 

Wrapping papers are of many kinds, of various 
substances and colours, and are varied, too, in surface. 



56 PAPER AND ITS USES 

The materials used range from the strongest to the 
weakest — from hemp rope to mechanical wood — and 
include jute in the form of old gunny bags or sacking, 
hemp refuse, old rope and string, waste card cuttings, 
old paper, and wood pulp refuse. The substance ranges 
from 38 lb. to 160 lb. per ream of 480 sheets in 
double imperial, the colour from *' white " to a very 
dark brown, and the finish from highly glazed both 
sides to a rough air-dried surface. 

Strong materials are boiled under pressure for 
several hours, lime being employed for hard papers, 
and soda for softer papers. The fibres receive but 
little washing, going on to the beaters, where the 
stronger fibres are first reduced and the softer materials 
added later. Loading, colouring, and size are added, 
and the paper made on the Fourdrinier. Air-dried 
browns are specially tough, very leathery, will stand 
a great deal of folding, and when packing and unpack- 
ing of parcels is required the extra cost is easily 
recouped. Cylinder-dried browns are dried on the 
paper machine, and the papers are not so elastic as 
air-dried papers of the same substance. Glazed browns 
are usually lighter in colour and cleaner in appearance 
than the ordinary wrappings, and usually contain a 
large proportion of wood pulp. Kraft browns may 
be described as glazed browns, as they are sometimes 
finished with a glazed surface both sides. A special 
kind of pulp is used for krafts, wood being digested 
at a comparatively low pressure with soda solution, the 
boiling being prolonged. The fibres are loosened, and 
reduction to pulp takes place in the edge runner 
(kollergang) instead of the beating engine. By this 
means the fibres are drawn out, not cut up, and very 
tough papers can be made, fully entitling the papers to 
their description as " kraft " (German for " strength "). 



MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS 57 

Special wrappings which will not discolour the 
goods packed in them are necessary for packing such 
fabrics as cotton goods, this quality being made without 
added colouring matter. Ream wrappers are sometimes 
thick common papers, serving as protective coverings 
only, being heavy but with little strength. Some 
papers are packed conscientiously, the manufacturer 
or stationer recognising the fact that a valuable paper 
demands a good packing paper. The use of poor 
paper is strange, seeing that the printer is charged 
for the wrapper at the rate quoted for the contents. 



CHAPTER XI 

CARDS AND CARDBOARDS 

In the chapter devoted to the manufacture of boards 
a brief description of the method of the production 
of each variety is given. Pulp boards, triplex (or 
multiplex), and pasteboards are there described, and 
coated boards of various sorts are included in 
Chapter IX. 

Pulp boards are frequently looked upon as soft 
and flexible, and many may be so described, but for 
card index work a stiff snappy card, thin in substance, 
is required, and as pasteboards and other cards made 
up of layers tend to split when subjected to much use, 
pulp boards are essential for that class of work. The 
boards which most closely resemble ivory boards in 
appearance will be found the most suitable for system 
use. A smooth writing surface, free from spots and 
other imperfections, is required^ but the cards should 
be easy to rule and print. It is impossible to manipu- 
late successfully cockled or wavy boards in ruling, 
printing, or cutting, so time will be saved if the 
selection of boards for index cards is made from the 
kinds which can be obtained perfectly flat. The softer 
kinds of pulp boards are excellent for a great deal of 
advertising matter, folders, post-cards, and for jobs for 
which something stouter than the usual tinted papers 
is required. Where rigidity is demanded pasteboards 
will be found of service. Some boards are made with 

S8 



CARDS AND CARDBOARDS 59 

grey middles and poor facings, but it is possible to 
obtain a good class of boards at a moderate price, and 
it is far more satisfactory to keep a stock of material 
of good appearance than to obtain the lowest quality 
possible. White cardboards should be rigid, of good 
colour, smooth, and should be so well sized as to be 
suitable for post-cards or similar work. Pasteboards 
can be obtained in various substances, being described 
as three-sheet, four-sheet, etc., but there is no point 
system in card thicknesses, as one maker's six-sheet 
will be the same as a four-sheet of another manufacturer. 
A very fair range of colours can be obtained in paste- 
boards, but if a special colour is desired a making 
order is frequently necessary to ensure sufficient of the 
special facing paper. 

Triplex boards are not made in the same variety 
of thickness or colours as pasteboards. It is not 
possible to build up the substance in triplex and to 
dry the web successfully in the thickness of the heavier 
pasteboards, but it is possible to procure very good 
triplex boards with the attributes specified for paste- 
boards. 

The better qualities of cardboards will be found 
suitable for most classes of printing, even for half-tone 
work, but if three-colour blocks are to be printed, 
coated boards are necessary. Chromo boards, one- or 
two-sided, are obtainable from three- to twelve-sheet in 
substance, and on these any class of work will stand 
well. Owing to the burnished surface of these boards 
show cards keep clean for a much longer period than 
when ordinary cardboards are used, and frequently 
varnishing can be dispensed with if enamelled boards 
are not exposed to weather. Coated boards must be 
handled with care at all times, as the surface is 
sensitive to grease and moisture, notwithstanding its 



6o PAPER AND ITS USES 

dustproof tendency. Cloth-lined and cloth-surfaced 
boards are used for club cards, being very durable and 
folding well. The white side should always be the 
inside. 

Wholesale stationers keep a large and varied stock 
of cut cards, plain, round cornered, gilt edged, embossed, 
plate sunk, with fancy borders and fancy surfaces. A 
list of stock sizes will be found on page 140, but this 
list does not refer to every variety of card. Some 
kinds, such as ivory cards, are stocked in all the 
regular visiting and business card sizes and multiples 
of the same, and others in the usual ticket and 
correspondence card sizes. Reference to the stock 
book of any maker will serve as a guide in ordering 
for stock or for special purposes. Post-cards, plain and 
with printed fronts, are procurable in a variety of 
qualities, and often prove very useful to small printers. 

The standard size for boards of all kinds is royal, 
25 inches x 20 inches. 



CHAPTER XII 

DURABILITY OF PAPER 

Paper is used for many publications and jobs of an 
ephemeral character, and for these the permanence of 
paper is never in question. On the other hand, 
ledgers, leases, agreements, share certificates, must be 
upon paper which is to all intents and purposes per- 
manent and capable of resisting a good deal of handling. 
Printed records, too, must be preserved on paper that 
will, with ordinary care, be indestructible. 

The constituents of paper, as shown in the first 
chapter, are vegetable fibres, mineral filling, colouring 
matter, and vegetable or animal sizing. The fibres 
producing the paper which approximates most nearly 
to a pure cellulose material, with the minimum of 
chemical and mechanical treatment, are, of course, the 
best possible. Classified with that in view, cotton, 
flax, hemp, chemical wood, esparto, and mechanical 
wood is the order of merit. Cotton is, more than any 
other material, the ideal fibre. It contains 91 per cent, 
of pure cellulose, has a comparatively small amount of 
incrusting matter, and its fibre is easily bleached, and 
easily prepared for papermaking. Consisting as it 
does of seed-hairs, cotton is a free fibre from the first. 
It consists of a long tube, of dumb-bell section, with a 
tendency to twist upon itself Prolonged beating 
produces numerous fibrillar, and the softness of the 
original fibre is preserved until over-beating is reached. 

61 



62 PAPER AND ITS USES 

The twisting, the division into fibrill^e, make for 
strength, good felting, and, with the softness in addition, 
the best and most durable papers are those of cotton. 

The flax fibre is a bast fibre. Its yield of pure 
cellulose is 70 to 80 per cent. The fibre consists 
of a thick walled canal, which is easily seen in the 
unbeaten state. Beating tends to crush and remove 
the early characteristics. The fibres are regularly 
rounded or polygonal, and easily split into numerous 
fibrillar, the ends of the fibres beat out into bunches 
of small fibres, and these, together with the nodules 
which occur on many of the fibres, produce strength 
in the paper. The flax fibre is straighter than the 
cotton fibre, and so linen papers are stiffer and harder 
than cotton papers. 

Wood, produced as fibres by chemical means, 
consists largely of tracheids, long ribbon-like cells, 
which are easily broken into shorter lengths. It is not 
possible to subdivide the fibres longitudinally by pro- 
longed beating. This only tends to shorten the fibres. 
Hence Mitscherlich,^ or similarly produced wood pulp, 
gives strong tough papers, unattainable by those pulps 
which are strongly bleached and much reduced. The 
tracheids, being smooth and flat, do not tend to make 
soft papers. But, blended with rag or esparto fibres, 
excellent papers may be produced. Only 50 per cent, 
of fibre is produced from the original wood. 

Esparto gives a smooth, cylindrical fibre, pointed, 
short, with small canal. Being small, the fibres do not 
receive much treatment in beating. Separation and 
cleaning are the principal ends of the preparatory 
stages. Esparto is, to the papermaker, synonymous 

^ Mitscherlich process : boiling for a long period under low- 
pressure, afterwards disintegrating the fibres by means of the edge 
runner. 



DURABILITY OF PAPER 63 

with bulky papers. The best of printing papers, Htho. 
papers, and featherweights are composed largely of 
esparto. It blends well with the preceding fibres, 
and especially with chemical wood for printing papers. 
Unfortunately esparto is liable to deterioration, and 
thus is not suitable for permanent papers. Its yield 
of cellulose is low — 42 to 47 per cent. 

Mechanical wood is lowest in the scale of paper- 
making materials. Chemically it is impure ; struc- 
turally it consists of chips and fragments, seldom 
complete fibres. Ground into short lengths, it consists 
usually of short bundles of short pieces of fibre. It 
does not felt well, and requires the addition of other 
fibrous material to hold the pulp together as paper. 
Ten to 40 per cent, of chemical pulp is usually added 
to mechanical pulp to make it more lasting and less 
brittle. 

In 1898 a committee appointed by the Society 
of Arts reported upon the deterioration of papers after 
extensive investigation. Their conclusions hold good 
to-day, and may be summarised in the next five para- 
graphs. 

The deterioration of paper may be by discoloration 
only, or disintegration may also occur. Discoloration 
may be caused simply by the action of the atmosphere, 
and is to be seen in the margins of books and in 
coloured papers. The outer margins of books are 
more susceptible to oxidation than the interior, and 
in gaslit rooms most books will in time suffer from 
discoloured margins. Chemical residues from the 
manufacturing processes, if left in the paper, will 
bring about changes in colour, engine-sized papers 
being more liable to change than papers which are 
tub-sized. Papers which contain esparto, straw, or 
mechanical wood, will in chemical laboratories certainly 



64 PAPER AND ITS USES 

become discoloured, as aniline and other coal-tar bases 
stain the papers yellow or pink. There are but few 
colouring matters which are absolutely fast, therefore 
most tinted and coloured papers will change in time. 

Loss of strength may be due to impurities in paper, 
such as residues of the chemicals used in the preparation 
of the pulp, to the impurities in the pulp itself, or to the 
use of gas as the agent for lighting and heating. The 
use of china clay for the improvement of the surface of 
the paper and for the increase of opacity, tends to 
weaken the paper, not by any chemical reaction, but 
merely by rendering the paper less resistant to wear. 
The attainment of extreme whiteness by bleaching 
is sometimes obtained at the expense of durability, 
as products are sometimes left in the fibre which will 
cause deterioration and discoloration of the paper. 

The classification of the fibres has been referred 
to, and the four classes are : (i) cotton, flax, hemp ; 
(ii) chemical wood ; (iii) esparto and straw ; (iv) 
mechanical wood. 

For written documents of permanent value the 
paper should be all rag fibre, without starch and 
loading, tub-sized with gelatine. For printed books 
to be preserved as of permanent value, not less than 
70 per cent, of the fibre should be rag, the loading 
should not exceed 10 per cent, as shown in the ash 
of the paper, and the sizing should be effected by 
not more than 2 per cent, of resin. 

The wearing qualities of paper are affected by 
the method of manufacture as well as by the con- 
stituents. Blotting paper, which is an all-rag paper, 
will soon wear away, owing to the fact that the fibres 
are cut short and loosely held together without sizing. 
If the paper were heavily rolled it would reduce its 
usefulness as an absorbent paper. Featherweight 



DURABILITY OF PAPER 65 

papers are made entirely of esparto, finished to produce 
as bulky a paper as possible, consequently the fibres 
are not well rolled together, and the books printed on 
such paper are anything but durable. Imitation art 
papers give a mineral residue of 25 to 35 per cent, 
on ashing, and have very little strength, owing to 
the large proportion of china clay present. 

Art papers do not fold or stitch well, as the mineral 
coating, although firmly fixed to the paper, behaves as 
a non-fibrous material might be expected to do, break- 
ing down, and the paper beneath tends to give way 
too. If kept in a damp place art papers absorb 
moisture at the edges, and in the presence of a large 
amount of moisture the sheets will stick together. 
Rag art papers are procurable (the body being a rag 
paper), and possibly it will be found that such papers, 
kept from air and moisture, will be very durable. 

Papers containing a large proportion of mechanical 
wood, whether coated or otherwise, are certain to 
deteriorate rapidly. A newspaper exposed to sunlight 
for a day or two becomes discoloured and brittle, the 
same result following in a longer time if exposed to 
light and air without the sun. For this reason papers 
containing mechanical wood should never be employed 
for work which is to last. Cheap reprints of standard 
works are sometimes printed on such paper, but it is a 
very doubtful economy on the part of the publisher. 



CHAPTER XIII 

DEFECTS AND REMEDIES 

Many users of paper look upon that material as being 
perfectly inert and stable, always of the same quality, 
and any defect which may arise remediable only by 
changing the paper. Unfortunately, the printer who 
uses the paper for letterpress, lithographic, or ruling 
purposes, finds that paper is not unchangeable, and 
when work has to be registered upon the paper diffi- 
culties often arise, and exchange is not always possible. 
The principal difficulties arise from stretching, 
cockling, creasing, from the surface lifting or picking, 
from the paper being out of square, from electricity 
contained in the paper, and from loose particles coming 
away from the paper in the form of fluff. In addition 
there are difficulties in getting colour to dry upon 
certain papers, and in obtaining a solid impression or 
continuous line from printed or ruled matter. 

Reference to the chapter on machine-made papers 
will serve to give the clue to some of the difficulties, 
and may suggest the remedy. The pulp, diluted with 
a large volume of water, consists of innumerable fibres, 
their length being at least lOO times their diameter, 
and as is the case of all water-borne bodies travelling 
in a fast stream, they take up the position in which 
their length is parallel to the direction of flow. The 
side shake of the wire alters the position of some of 
the fibres, and although the alteration is permanent, 

66 



DEFECTS AND REMEDIES 6/ 

the majority of fibres remain in a position parallel to the 
machine direction of the web of paper. Most machine- 
made papers are dried on the heated cylinders of the 
paper machine, the diameters of the cylinders being 
arranged to allow for the consequent contraction of the 
web, but the fibres are not given the opportunity to 
adjust themselves as in the case of air-dried papers. 

When it is remembered that the papermaking 
fibres may expand in diameter to the extent of 20 per 
cent., but only one per cent, in length, it will be seen 
that the expansion will show itself chiefly in one 
direction, for the majority of fibres lie side by side. 
Fortunately the full expansion does not take place. 
Paper which is properly matured contains water 
equal to 7 per cent, of its weight. Without this 
moisture, paper would be brittle, and when this amount 
is exceeded the paper expands. But paper, as it 
leaves the calender rolls of the paper machine, contains 
less than 7 per cent, of water. It is essential that all 
the water should be dried out of the paper, and the 
paper is sometimes reeled almost bone-dry, but if the 
paper is to be super-calendered it is damped before 
reeling, and left until the paper mellows before calender- 
ing. Many papers are cut and packed without much 
opportunity for maturing, that is, as regards paper, 
attaining a degree of stability which should be main- 
tained during its manipulation by the printer, and, it is 
hoped, during the remainder of its career. 

All papers have some spaces between the fibres, 
sometimes partly filled with sizing and loading, but 
always containing some air space, the amount depend- 
ing upon the density of the paper. Heavy or dense 
papers and light or bulky papers are the extremes, 
30 to 70 per cent, of air space being examples of 
the two ends of the scale. The fibres, when expanding. 



68 PAPER AND ITS USES 

fill some of the air spaces between the fibres, and 
the expansion can never extend to the 20 per cent, 
mentioned. Experiments carried out on a litho. paper, 
36 lb. royal, showed the maximum expansion from 
absorption of moisture to be 2 J per cent., but papers do 
not expand as much as this in working, or register 
work would be extremely difficult. 

Expansion, or stretching as it is usually termed, 
is caused by absorption of moisture by the finished 
paper from the atmosphere. The atmosphere always 
contains some moisture, the amount varying not only 
from day to da)-, but from hour to hour. When there 
is an excess of moisture in the air, as on wet days 
or when fogs occur, paper will readily absorb the 
extra moisture, and the absorption will be accompanied 
by expansion of the sheet, principally across the web, 
or as it is generally termed, in the cross direction. 
This propensity of paper really points to the remedy. 
Paper should be matured and kept in that state, or 
to put it in other words, it should contain an amount of 
moisture which is neither increased nor diminished. 

Few printers treat the machine-room, letterpress or 
lithographic, or the ruling-room as places where scientific 
conditions should be maintained. The use of the wet 
and dry bulb thermometers in other factories is for a 
definite purpose, to indicate the state of the atmosphere, 
and to guide in regulation of temperature and humidity, 
in order that the manufacturing processes may be carried 
out under scientific conditions. But the machine-room 
of the printer, closed for more than half its time, heated 
perhaps by hot water or steam pipes, sometimes hot, 
sometimes cold, in wet weather damp, in summer 
alternately very dry and damp, what wonder if paper 
expands, contracts, and causes trouble at machine. 

The establishments where scientific conditions are 



DEFECTS AND REMEDIES 



69 



observed reap the benefit in increased output, because 
less work is spoiled by bad register, and less time 
is spent in getting work to register. Even with the 
regulation of atmosphere suggested by the use of the 
dry and wet bulb thermometers or hygrometer, the 
paper must be matured in the machinc-rooDi, that is, the 
paper must be exposed in order to allow it to absorb 
moisture if too dry, and to part with moisture if too 
damp, so that the paper may be as stable as possible 
while the condition of the machine-room remains 
constant. It is important that the amount of atmos- 
pheric moisture should remain constant, and printers' 




I'K;. 12. — Ball Frame fi)r Haiii^ing Taper. 



engineers will advise on the means of attaining this 
end. 

Various methods may be adopted for suspending 
paper. In some cases the paper is hung over lines, 
about a quire at a time, exposed to the atmosphere 
and dust of the machine-room. Hanging frame;; are 
supplied by vendors of printers' supplies, in whicli 
the paper is clipped by a ball or swinging lever, 
and about a quire is held in each of the clips, a 
perpendicular position minimising the danger of dirt. 
By use of these frames a large quantity of paper can 
be treated in a comparatively small space. The 
" Swift " machine is another method of maturino; 



70 



PAPER AND ITS USES 



paper. The claim made for the machine is that it 
matures large quantities of paper in a short time. 




u 



The machine consists of two sets of fans, enclosed by 
iron framing, driven by motor attached or by existing 



DEFECTS AND REMEDIES 7 1 

motive power, some four to six reams of paper being 
suspended in ball clip frames in the space between 
the two sets of fans. The air of the machine-room 
is circulated by the fans rapidly through the paper, 
and maturing takes place in two or three hours. 

All paper, after it has been matured, must be 
stacked, a board and a heavy weight placed on the 
top of the stack, and the edges protected from getting 
dirty. 

Stretchijig takes place when paper is subjected to 
tension or rolling. All cylinder printing machines 
exert these strains, from the pull of the cylinder and 
from the printing surface. Difficulty in register will 
be experienced when a paper stretches much under 
tension, but it is not so great a trouble as the 
expansion already referred to. All papers are elastic, 
and if stretched just within the bounds of the breaking 
strain of the paper, will show some elongation, per- 
manent or temporary. If the paper returns to its 
original length there is no permanent stretch, but that 
is seldom found in practice. The greater expansion 
of paper is in the cross direction, and the direction of 
greater stretch of the sheet coincides with that of the 
larger expansion. 

Careful tests of good litho. papers on the Leunig 
Paper Tester show them to have a mean temporary 
stretch of 2^ per cent, in the machine direction, with 
a stretch that is permanent of "68 per cent. The 
figures for the cross direction of the paper are 4 per 
cent, and i^ per cent, respectively. It is the per- 
manent stretch that may cause inconvenience, but the 
figures quoted must not be taken as an indication 
of what takes place when printing. A properly ad- 
justed machine does not exert the tension that would 
be necessary to obtain the percentage of elongation 



72 PAPER AND ITS USES 

shown above. The fact that hthographers prefer papers 
cut with the cross direction coincident with the nar- 
rower dimension of the sheet is sufficient proof that it is 
not the machine tension that is dreaded in register work. 

Writing and most printing papers, which may or 
may not be printed in more than one colour, are 
frequently cut two ways of the webs, that is, a 30 by 
40 inch paper, if cut from a web of 70 inches net 
width, is cut without waste by cutting sheets 30 inches 
wide from one part and 40-inch sheets from the 
remainder of the reel. All papers on which register 
work is to be printed must be cut with the same 
machine direction. In ordering paper which is not 
generally used for work in several printings, the printer 
should be careful to point out the purpose for which it 
is intended, and ask that the instruction shall, if 
necessary, be passed on to the papermaker. 

Cockling in paper is caused by the paper being 
drier or damper than the atmosphere, and shows that 
there is unequal expansion of the sheets, and exposure 
as detailed above should be tried as a remedy. Card- 
boards which are cockled may or may not improve 
upon exposure to the atmosphere. The thicker the 
cardboard the less likely it is to alter its shape. 
Usually the fault will have arisen through severe 
drying under tension, stretching the boards, and 
drying while unequally stretched. The cockling and 
wavy edges of boards are frequently found to be 
permanent faults. 

Wavy edges to paper, if at the feed edge, will 
frequently cause bad creasing, from which damage to 
the printing surface may result. Creasing from defects 
of the machine, make-ready, or printing surface must 
not be visited upon the papermaker. If the paper will 
not respond to exposure to air, feeding the narrow way 



DEFECTS AND REMEDIES 73 

of the sheet may overcome the difficulty, or, if the size 
of the machine permits it, cutting the paper in half and 
rearranging the forme or other printing surface and 
putting on an extra feeder. 

Art and other coated papers which have the coating 
fixed to the paper with glue in addition to the liability 
to wavy edges, may be troublesome by reason of the 
surface lifting or picking. The latter fault is caused 
by the coating being insecurely fastened to the body 
paper, the trouble being temporary or permanent. 
Storing the paper in a damp place will weaken the 
adhesive properties of the glue, and the coating will 
not stand the pull exerted by the printing surface, but 
will come away in places. The paper may be improved 
by suspending it to dry off the excess of moisture, but 
if heated air is used, the temperature should not exceed 
90° Fahr. Newly coated papers may cause trouble, 
owing to the adhesive not being quite hard, and keeping 
in stock for a fair length of time, a month or two, may 
result in an entirely satisfactory issue. But if the 
papers must be used, maturing as already described, 
with a careful use of heat, will usually remove the 
trouble altogether. Slight modification of the ink may 
be necessary, and should be tried before condemning 
the paper altogether. 

It will be found occasionally that the coating is not 
properly fixed to the paper, owing to insufficient glue, 
or a soft-sized body paper being used. Damp the 
thumb and press on the coated paper, lifting it a few 
seconds after. If a large part or the whole of the 
coating comes away the coating is at fault. Crumple 
a piece of the paper, treating it rather severely, and 
note the amount of coating which has left the paper 
when flattened out again. A large amount of dust 
indicates bad coating. Comparative tests should be 



74 PAPER AND ITS USES 

carried out, a sample known to be satisfactory being 
tried by the side of the suspected sample. 

Fortunately papermakers do not often offend by 
sending supplies which are out of the square. It does, 
however, sometimes occur that one edge of the paper 
is not quite true ; folding a sheet in half, with the short 
edges coincident, will show the extent of deviation from 
squareness. For ordinary purposes it may not be 
material if one edge of the paper is one-eighth of an inch 
out, but if the sheet has to be backed up, care must be 
taken to feed the longer side into the grippers and to 
place the side lay, when backing up, at the opposite 
side exactly at the same point as when first fed. This, 
of course, is the printer's rule, and in such cases it must 
be rigidly observed. When paper is fed to the narrow 
edge, as when two sheets of demy are laid on a double 
demy machine, the square edge must be the lay edge, 
or the register of the backing forme will be impossible. 
For colour work the only safe rule is to trim the two 
lay edges of all the paper, and, if necessary, to use a 
larger paper to allow for the trim. 

Electricity in paper causes delay in feeding, the 
sheets sticking together, necessitating an undue use of 
the cylinder stop. As the paper is reeled at the end 
of the papermaking machine, electric sparks are 
frequently to be observed, owing to the electricity 
generated by friction of the dry paper. A large 
quantity of the electricity is extracted, but some thin 
papers with high surface will retain a fair amount, and 
sheets cling together. Paper which has been exposed 
for maturing will not give this trouble, and thick 
papers, even if electrified, do not usually call for special 
treatment. Elaborate methods have been suggested 
for discharging the electricit)' in the paper, but it is a 
difficult matter, and the most satisfactory plan is to set 



DEFECTS AND REMEDIES 75 

aside the reams which are troublesome, and in time the 
electricity will disperse. The use of automatic feeding 
mechanism is sometimes quoted as a cure for this trouble. 

Papers which are loose in texture are usually soft- 
sized, and thus, having comparatively little size to hold 
the fibres together, will g'wG off fluff or dust, consisting 
of small fibres, as soon as the paper is subjected to 
friction, even of the lightest description. Such paper 
in its passage through the printing machine gradually 
deposits its fibrous dust upon the printing surface, the 
rollers take it from there to the ink distributing surface, 
and the whole of the inking and printing becomes foul. 
Such papers are extremely difficult for lithographic 
printing, and the letterpress printer consumes most of 
such papers. Soft papers with the mill cut are slightly 
rough and give off dust, and trimming a clean edge 
reduces the liability to fluff, but cleaning up at machine 
(forme, rollers, and ink slab or drum) will be necessary 
more frequently than is usual. When the machine 
is stopped for washing up, all parts of the machine 
carriage which can be reached should be wiped free 
from dust, as the accumulation will gradually find its 
way to the rollers when the machine is in motion. 

The proper ink for the paper will prove the solution 
for difficulties in printing on hard papers, and also on 
very soft papers. It is outside the scope of this work 
to deal with printing inks, but in regard to coated 
papers it will be found that all such papers do not 
behave alike. Some take the ink readily and retain 
the fullness of colour, while others soak up the varnish 
and leave the dry colour on the surface. The latter 
fault is owing to the absorbency of the body paper, 
and ink must be treated so that the absorbency of the 
paper is satisfied, and yet the colour and medium 
remain more on the surface of the paper. 



y6 PAPER AND ITS USES 

Ruling on papers with hard surface is rendered less 
difficult by the use of a small amount of gall in the 
ink. For hand-made papers the ink always requires 
such manipulation, while for other tub-sized papers a 
little gum arabic in addition to the gall will render 
even ruling more easily attainable. In ruling engine- 
sized papers a small amount of gum arabic and 
carbonate of soda (ordinary washing soda) will make 
the colours lie better. While all work can be done on 
the pen machine, papers with soft surfaces, blottings, 
duplicating, metallic, and coated papers generally, will 
^\M^ the disc machine opportunity to prove its superiority 
for this class of work. Cockled papers and very thin 
papers can be dealt with successfully at the ruling 
machine by a little manipulation of the pens and feed. 

Although rolling, hot or cold, may be effectively 
used for giving finish to the printed work, the paper is 
subjected to such great pressure that it is liable to 
stretch. As pointed out earlier in the chapter, 
stretching of paper is not equal in both directions of 
the sheet, and it is advisable, in order to preserve the 
strength of the paper, to roll in the same direction as 
the paper was made and rolled in the papermaking 
machine. Discover the machine direction by the 
method described on page '^6, and feed the paper to 
the rolling machine in the same way as it left the 
papermaking machine. 

Tub-sized papers may contain or develop a fault 
which will not occur in engine-sized papers, that of 
unpleasant smell. A preservative of some kind is 
frequently added to the sizing solution, but if the 
gelatine has commenced to decompose the smell will 
be at least unpleasant. Coated papers contain glue 
in the coating mixture, and are liable to the same fault. 
Printers should be careful when buying job lots of tub- 



DEFECTS AND REMEDIES 77 

sized or coated papers that the cause of the inclusion 
in the job Hst is not smell, for a customer cannot be 
expected to accept a big parcel of printed matter for 
circulation which is offensive to one of the finer senses, 
and therefore not likely to prove persuasive to the 
recipients. 

Deterioration of paper has been dealt with already, 
but there are faults unwittingly developed in some 
paper which can be avoided by the application of a 
little forethought. The colouring matters of papers 
are affected by various things. Some blue colours are 
discharged (bleached) when acid in any form comes in 
contact with them, others behave similarly when alkali 
is encountered. Some buff papers are altered in shade 
or even in colour b}^ the same agents, and other colours 
are affected by some but not by all acids. It is not 
proposed to examine the composition of the colours 
used by the papermaker, but to point to instances 
where care is required. When the printer or manu- 
facturing stationer is covering strawboards, boxboards, 
or millboards with coloured papers, paste or glue may 
be employed as adhesive, and these are always liable 
to become acid. To avoid change of colour the use of 
freshly prepared paste or glue should be adopted. 
Strawboards frequently contain a certain amount of 
free alkali, and the colours of papers or cloth mounted 
upon them may be affected. It may be necessary to 
change the paper to one which is unaffected by the 
strawboard, and if this is not feasible, a change of 
board may be necessary. It is not practicable to 
neutralise the alkali, as fresh trouble may be caused, 
and an unsatisfactory result be obtained. Before 
starting on a big job, tests should be made with the 
actual materials so that no serious loss by spoilage or 
stoppage may occur. 



yS PAPER AND ITS USES 

All knives, whether circular or straight, must be 
kept keenly sharpened in order to produce clean edges. 
Soft cards and papers give more trouble than moderately 
hard stock when cutting in a guillotine. Some 
materials should be cut by the rotary cutter when 
exact measurements are essential, for although it may 
take longer, for index cards all supplies must be 
trimmed exactly to the same dimensions, and the very 
hard index boards are liable to be cut irregularly by 
the guillotine. 

When sheets are ruled or printed, and are after- 
wards to be bound, the printed or ruled horizontal lines 
should coincide with the machine direction, or, as it is 
sometimes expressed, should run with the grain of the 
paper. The stitching and the binding which secure 
the leaves will then be fully operative, whereas if the 
paper is held with the back of the book parallel to the 
machine direction, the leaves are more liable to break 
away from the binding. 



CHAPTER XIV 

THE RIGHT PAPER 

Selection of paper to suit a particular job calls for 
experience in handling both the finished work and the 
plain paper. Judging papers as being equal to patterns 
or samples, and forming an opinion of comparative 
values, are also to be gained only by long experience. 
A few guiding principles, without making a royal road, 
may render the journey somewhat less laborious. 

The varieties of papers already described — writings, 
printings, coated, and other papers — are accompanied 
by indications of their general purposes, and the 
inexperienced should be kept from making bad 
blunders. Common sense will prevent the mistake 
which is still perpetrated of printing a half-tone block 
on a laid paper, or a paper with a heavy watermark. 
The laid lines and the watermark show up through the 
half-tone impression and spoil the picture. Half-tone 
work demands a perfectly smooth paper, coated or a 
good super-calendered paper being the best. 

Very few papers are identical in finish on both 
sides of the sheet, and it should be the first thing 
taught to the apprentice that all one-sided work should 
be printed on the right side of the paper. A matter 
which is seldom referred to is the position of the water- 
mark. When cutting paper, the paper should not be 
turned so that in a ream one-half of the paper has the 
watermark reading correctly, while on the other half it 



8o PAPER AND ITS USES 

is upside down. If the paper is ruled or printed in the 
sheet, the pens and type or transfers should be arranged 
to keep the watermark the right way. In the case of 
folded and stitched work this is not possible without 
special watermarking, but for all stationery these pre- 
cautions should be taken. 

When judging paper or cards it must always be 
remembered that a sheet may compare very badly with 
a small piece, therefore when making comparisons the 
sizes of the samples of paper or card should be cut to 
the same size. Only by adopting this practice can 
weight, colour, and texture be judged accurately. 

Choosing a paper suitable for the work in hand is 
simplified when one knows what is used for similar 
work. For ledgers, account books, and all work of 
that character, a strong, tough, well-finished paper, cap- 
able of taking writing ink easily, and able to bear ink 
after erasure should be used. An opaque all-rag, azure 
laid, tub-sized paper, of moderate weight, 34 lb. in 
writing medium, is the most suitable paper. For loose- 
leaf ledgers a thinner, tougher paper is desirable, as the 
leaves must lie closely and withstand the strain of 
frequent handling. For cheap account book work 
engine-sized papers are obtainable, very fair in appear- 
ance, but not possessing all the qualities of the better 
paper specified, or the extra cost of the latter could not 
be justified. 

The ideal paper for printed books is an all-rag 
paper, moderately sized, with antique or rough finish, 
excellent in handling and appearance, but the price 
precludes its use for any but the most luxurious 
editions. For ordinary bookwork, white paper with 
dull or machine finish, quite opaque, substance equal 
to 30 lb. demy, provides a serviceable paper where no 
illustrations, or line blocks only, appear. If half-tone 



THE RIGHT PAPER 8l 

illustrations are included, a super-calendered paper, 
slightly toned, is very suitable. When half-tones of 
very fine grain are used, it may be necessary to print 
on art paper throughout, or the illustrations printed on 
art paper and the body of the work on a printing 
paper of exactly the same shade as the coated paper. 
Mixture of shades in books should be avoided as far 
as possible. The practice of printing sections of 
magazines on different papers is growing, but is to be 
deprecated. 

For works which have to make bulky volumes for 
a comparatively few pages, featherweight papers are 
employed. These in 80 lb. quad crown will usually 
be chosen, wove or laid as fancy dictates. Some of 
the wholesale stationers state on the samples the thick- 
ness or bulk of a volume of a definite number of pages, 
this information serving as a guide in selecting paper 
to produce the thickness required in a volume. When 
a series of books is issued it is sometimes desired to 
have all the volumes of equal bulk. This is attained 
by adopting papers of different thicknesses ; thus a 
book of 500 pages is printed on a paper about half 
the thickness of that used for a volume of 256 pages. 
The range of substances in which papers are supplied 
renders this arrangement comparatively easy. 

The large variety of fancy papers for jobbing work 
calls for little comment. Avoid hard papers for 
programmes unless there is plenty of time for the ink 
to dry, or gloves will bear the printer's imprint. For 
outdoor functions coloured papers, if employed for 
programmes or similar jobs, must not be affected by 
moisture. Colour may decorate summer costumes if 
the programmes printed on coloured paper are sat 
upon. Art paper, too, is unsuitable for outdoor expo- 
sure in our changeable climate, and its use is to be dis- 
6 



S2 PAPER AND ITS USES 

couraged for sport programme work. Coloured poster 
papers must be unaffected by rain. Many coloured 
papers render printed matter exceedingly difficult to 
read by artificial light. 

The incongruity of a common cover paper to a 
booklet printed on a good printing paper, or vice versa, 
is to be avoided. Select papers for the inside and 
cover bearing both in mind, and if expense is to be 
considered, a compromise in quality may be effected. 

It is not always easy to persuade the consumer to 
select the very best paper for office stationery, but the 
choice should be made with a view to create a good 
impression. Remember always, too, that printing 
demands good paper to produce the most satisfactory 
effect. 

For lithography the work in hand frequently 
dictates the quality of paper to be used. Offset 
printing, certainly, has enabled the lithographer to 
print on papers unsuitable for direct stone printing, 
but in all work the right paper produces the best 
result. Fluffy papers, such as featherweights, however, 
are impossible for lithography. Loose of texture, with 
a tendency to shed fibre, the paper clogs the printing 
surface, and in such circumstances the best work is 
unattainable. Charts and maps are printed on strong, 
durable papers, and the manufacturers' chart papers 
will be found to conform to the description given. 

Colour work requires a paper which will give full 
effect to the colours superimposed upon its surface, 
white paper being most suitable for the purpose, the 
kind of paper employed being governed by the 
destination of the printed work. Chromo paper, litho. 
paper, M.G. poster paper, will be used according to 
the method of exhibition of the work, as calendars, 
labels, book illustrations, or posters. Work which is 



THE RIGHT PAPER 83 

to be varnished may be printed on litho. paper, which 
is sized and varnished after printing, or a varnishable 
paper, one that is hard-sized and finished in the manu- 
facture, may be used, varnish being appHed without 
previous sizing, as soon as the ink is dry. A thick 
Htho. paper is seldom as strong as a thinner one, and 
with the greater thickness goes more habiHty for the 
surface to pluck. 

The thinnest and commonest papers should not be 
chosen for set-off or interleaving sheets. Although 
many papers, when printed, absorb the ink and hasten 
the drying, it must be remembered that printer's ink, 
like paint, dries by oxidation, and the more freely air 
can reach the film of ink the quicker and more thorough 
will be the drying. A rough surfaced paper is most 
suitable for interleaving, as it will not stick to the 
printed matter, and it allows air to penetrate between 
the sheets. For interleaving colour work in which 
bronze is used at all, a paper of fair quality must be 
used, for common papers may contain chemical residues 
which will affect the brightness of the bronzed work. 
Paper equal to 24 lb. demy will serve admirably, and 
may be used repeatedly. 

Proofs should be printed upon the paper which is to 
be used for the job, if that is possible. Galley proofs 
require a paper which is moderately sized, not too soft, 
or corrections made in ink may be undecipherable 
from the spreading of the ink. 

It is not difficult to distinguish between the right 
and wrong sides of paper, and little excuse can be 
made for the printer who uses the wrong side. Flat 
papers are usually packed with the right side upper- 
most ; if the paper is folded, the right side is outwards. 
There is a slight diversity of practice among paper- 
makers, but the general rule is as stated. In a very 



84 PAPER AND ITS USES 

few cases of watermarked papers the watermark can 
be read from both sides of the sheet, but the general 
rule is that the right side of the sheet is that from 
which the watermark can be read. In machine-made 
papers it is the upper side of the paper as it is made, 
but in hand-mades the right side is the under side 
which receives the watermark. The watermark is in 
reverse upon the mould or the dandy roll, and is fixed 
on the impressionable pulp by slight compression or 
displacement of the fibres. In papers without water- 
marks it may be taken that the smoother side is the 
right side. The wrong side of machine-made papers 
bears the impress of the woven wire upon which they 
were made. The wire mark is fixed by various means, 
such as the pressure of the dandy roll, the action of the 
suction boxes, and the pressure of the couch rolls. 
Blotting paper, although not subjected to all these 
forces, shows the wire mark so plainly as to serve as a 
guide to what one may expect to find in other papers 
which are more highly finished. Looking along the 
surface of the paper will sometimes reveal this mark, 
when it is not possible to detect it by looking through 
the sheet. The wire for hand moulds is much coarser 
than the wire cloth of the machine, and as the pressure 
of the pulp is not great, and the fibre is moderately 
long, couching nearly obliterates the woven wire mark 
and makes it less easy to distinguish between the right 
and wrong sides of hand-made wove papers. In a laid 
mould the wires displace fibres, and the paper is 
immeasurably thinner at the places where the wires 
of the mould occur, but these are the only wire marks 
on the paper. A dandy roll makes the laid wire marks 
on the right side of machine-made paper in addition to 
the woven wire marks on the wrong side, so the 
distinction between right and wrong sides is easily 



THE RIGHT PAPER 85 

made in machine-made papers. The smooth side of 
M.G. papers is the right side. M.G. poster papers 
are rougher on the wrong side to make the posting of 
the bills an easier matter. 

The wire marks assist one in distinguishing between 
hand-made and machine-made papers. It is clear 
that all machine-made papers have a wire mark on the 
wrong side, even if laid or watermarked. The water- 
mark of the hand mould is fastened over the wire, so 
the watermark will never show wire marks. Looking 
through the paper, observe whether the watermark has 
any small woven wire marks ; if it has, it is undoubtedly 
machine-made. A laid paper which shows woven wire 
marks is of course the product of the machine. 

Coloured papers may vary in shade on the two 
sides. This variation is more frequently seen in papers 
which are coloured by pigments than in those dyed 
with aniline colours. Blue papers, with ultramarine in 
their composition, tend to be slightly lighter on the 
wrong side of the sheet. The causes of this are 
different in hand-made and machine-made papers. In 
hand-mades the colour has a tendency to gravitate to 
the bottom of the mould, which is the right side of the 
paper, while in machine-made papers the action of the 
suction boxes is apt to draw some of the colour away 
from the under side, leaving the right side slightly 
darker. Thus difference in shade of the two sides is 
not a guide to distinguish between hand- and machine- 
made papers. 

To recall the methods of manufacture. The mould 
of hand-made papers receives a shake each way, felting 
the fibres evenly. The machine wire receives a side- 
shake which is only effective for a short period — as 
long as the pulp is in a state of suspension — and as 
soon as the water has drained away the shake ceases 



86 PAPER AND ITS USES 

to take effect, consequently the majority of the fibres 
are parallel to the direction of the flow of the pulp. 
Some fibres are crossed or felted ; but taking the web 
of paper, it is more easily pulled apart across its width 
than in the direction of its length. The fibres are 
fixed and are dried in a state of tension, so that the 
fibres in the direction of the flow (known as the 
machine direction or the grain of the paper) are fully 
extended, and subsequently expand but little in length, 
but may do so in width or diameter. 

The direction of the fibres serves to distinguish 
between hand- and machine-made papers. Tearing a 
piece of hand-made paper will result in ragged tears, 
very similar both ways of the sheet. A piece of 
machine-made paper shows a ragged tear in one 
direction, and a much straighter tear in the other. 
The straighter tear is in the machine direction. If a 
circle about three inches in diameter is cut from a 
hand-made sheet and thoroughly damped on one side, 
the paper will curl slowly and unbend again. If a 
similar piece is cut from machine-made paper and 
treated in the same way it will curl more quickly into 
a cylinder and remain rolled up for some time. This 
not only serves as a distinction between the two papers, 
but, in machine-mades, shows the machine direction 
which is parallel to the axis of the cylinder of paper. 
By marking the sheet before the circle is cut, the 
machine direction of the sheet can be determined. 

Strips cut from the sheets, one from each way, 
7 inches long by i inch wide, held between the finger 
and thumb and allowed to incline at an angle of 60°, 
will behave differently according to the method of manu- 
facture. Hand-made strips will keep together, because 
the fibres are equally distributed, while strips of machine- 
made paper will separate, owing to the difference in 



THE RIGHT PAPER 



87 



the direction of fibres. The strips should be incHned 
first to the right and then to the left to ensure correct 
conclusions. 

Hand-made paper has four deckle edges, but 
imitation hand-mades also have these, and mould-made 
papers are similarly marked. Imitation hand-mades, 
being machine-made, are distinguishable by the means 
enumerated above, and comparison with the edges of 
known hand-made paper will be the quickest method 
of distinguishing between real and imitation deckle 

edges. 

Mould-made papers are not easily distinguishable 
from hand-made papers. The deckle edges are not 
always alike on all four sides as they are in hand-made 
papers. Testing on the Leunig machine (see page 99), 
they will usually reveal a difference which it is not 
possible to discover from looking at the sheet. The 
German paper experts declare it impossible to differ- 
entiate with certainty between the two kinds of paper, 
while a papermaker who manufactures both varieties 
usually has but little difficulty in naming them 
correctly. 

Comparison between Hand-Made, Mould-Made, 

AND MaCHINE-MADE PAPERS 

Tests made on Leiinig's Machine {see page 99), 

Papers of same size and substance 



Description of 
Paper. 


Stronger Direction. 


Weaker Direction. 


Mean of 
Two Directions. 


Tensile 
Strength. 


Elonga- 
tion. 


Tensile 
Strength. 


Elonga- 
tion. 


Tensile 
Strength. 


Elonga- 
tion. 


Hand-made - 
Mould-made - 
Machine-made 


Lb. 

25-5 
26-8 
26-5 


Per cent. 
3*9 

4-8 
37 


Lb. 
22-1 

20 -8 
i6-o 


Per cent. 

5-6 
47 
57 


Lb. 

23-8 
23-8 

21-3 


Per cent. 
475 
475 
470 



The figures given are the mean results of five tests 



88 PAPER AND ITS USES 

Tearing paper as a method of comparing strength 
is one of the simplest as well as one of the surest 
methods. Paper has to withstand tearing stresses, and 
the paper which ruptures with most difficulty is usually 
the most resistant to wear. Tearing will reveal 
whether the paper is composed of long or short fibres, 
and whether it is tough or brittle, and is a method of 
testing which requires no apparatus. 



CHAPTER XV 

THE STOCK ROOM 

Selection of papers for stock purposes is not easy 
to undertake for others, therefore this section can only 
summarise the information of the earher chapters and 
offer suggestions. 

The stock room should not be an out-of-the-way 
room, dark and perhaps damp, but should be light, 
with ample room to move paper in bulk, so that issues 
as well as deliveries can be dealt with quickly. It 
should be possible to control the temperature and 
humidity of the paper warehouse if the paper is 
generally used for register work. A dry room is 
essential, or trouble will ensue, for in damp rooms 
tub-sized and coated papers will deteriorate, highly 
glazed papers will go back in finish, papers for colour 
work will be unreliable, and delay and loss will follow. 

In a printing office where small quantities of paper 
are dealt with, the inconvenience of carrying paper in 
and out a few reams at a time may not be apparent, 
but considerable time is wasted and some loss in spoiled 
sheets results from such a method. Quantities of paper 
should be dealt with as expeditiously, and with as little 
handling, as possible. Transporter trucks require, 
perhaps, more room than is taken by a man or boy 
lifting reams, but it deals with thirty reams, instead of 
two at a time, and in up-to-date offices time is counted 
as valuable as currency. 

89 



go PAPER AND ITS USES 

Large stocks should be kept in stacks ; the counsel 
of perfection being that no paper should actually touch 
the floor, but stand on boards with a space beneath. 
If paper is moved in and out of the warehouse by 
transporter trucks it will stand on the platforms 
supplied and be available for moving rapidl)^ to the 
machine-room. Smaller stacks will be ranged in racks 
or on shelves so arranged as to be easily accessible, the 
larger papers nearer the floor, and the smaller papers, 
which can be handled more easily, on the higher shelves. 
The arrangement in classes is advised, writings, print- 
ings, coated, coloured papers having definite positions, 
the sizes also being arranged for ease of handling. 
Each section, size, and variety should be clearly marked 
to ensure accuracy and economy in issue as well as in 
keeping stocks up to correct strength. A new arrival 
should not be dumped down an}' where, but should take 
its place in the proper section, be considered as valuable 
material, and handled accordingly. Coated papers 
generally and imitation art papers mark and crease badly 
if carelessly handled, but if all papers are treated care- 
fully it will not be necessary to give instruction for 
handling special papers. 

Papers are received from different mills packed in 
different ways. If reams are received in bales, it is 
usual to unpack and to stack in single reams, as subse- 
quent handling is easier in the lighter weight. Heavy 
papers and boards are packed in quantities smaller 
than reams to facilitate removal in and out, paper in 
half or quarter reams, and boards in packets of lOO, 
144, or 250. The method of packing reams or parcels 
is sometimes excellent, but at other times it leaves 
something to be desired. If the wrappers are not 
strong enough for the paper contained, they break as 
the reams are moved, and the edges of the paper are 



THE STOCK ROOM 9I 

likely to become damaged. Fastening is done with 
paper tape, webbing, or string, according to the size 
and weight of the parcels. Light and small sized 
paper may be fastened with paper tape, all sizes and 
weights \\'ith webbing or cotton tape, and heavy papers 
with string. If string be used, it will be necessary, 
before stacking, to see that the strings are not greasy. 
If soiled string has been used it must be removed and 
the reams again fastened, or the grease will penetrate 
and spoil a portion of the contents. 

Broken quantities should always be tied up, preferably 
with webbing, and the quantity marked on the wrapper, 
correction being made as quantities are withdrawn. 

Letterpress printers prepared to execute all classes 
of work must of necessit}' carry a more varied stock of 
papers than one who specialises in one or two lines. 
It is convenient to have printing papers in several 
qualities and weights, the sizes being governed by the 
sizes of machines available. With a double demy 
cylinder machine it is not wise to stock quad demy 
paper ; but allowing that as the limit (a small one 
nowadays) printing papers in double demy, double 
crown, and royal will be safe sizes. Poster papers, 
both ordinary and M.G. finish, should be stocked in 
the full size of the capacit}' of the machines. 

Super-calendered papers should be carried in 
comparatively small quantities, unless they are to be 
used quickly, as high surfaces deteriorate when stocked 
for a long period. Art papers are better for being 
stocked a reasonable time, as the coating becomes 
fixed and there is less likelihood of picking at machine. 
Tinted papers are accumulated gradually, the colours 
and sizes most in demand being placed in stock. 
Cover papers must of course follow the white papers for 
sizes : the cover for demy works is medium, and the 



92 PAPER AND ITS USES 

royal is cut larger (2oi inches x 25 J inches) to cover 
an ordinary catalogue. In this class of paper, too, sizes 
and colours are governed by prevailing consumption. 

In making a selection of writing papers, unless 
one is a very large consumer, a safe course for the 
better classes is to make a selection of watermarked 
papers. There is no virtue in a watermark as such, 
but the wholesale stationer is able to keep known 
papers up to standard, and also is able to meet all 
reasonable demands from stock. The prevailing sizes 
for writing papers are foolscap, post, large post, double 
foolscap ; for account book work, demy, medium, and 
royal (in writing sizes), and imperial. Writing papers 
in cream wove, cream laid, azure laid, yellow wove 
(another term for azure wove), blue laid, and blue wove 
will be required. It may be necessary to keep a small 
stock of hand-made papers for documents of importance. 
Banks in medium, large post, and double foolscap are 
stocked if required. Engine-sized writings are suitable 
for much printed work, but for stationery of good 
appearance tub-sized papers should be stocked. Large 
post writings in 18, 21, 23, and 27 lb. will be useful 
stock, with other sizes in equivalent weights. Double 
large post is desirable in all engine-sized writings, and 
frequently in tub-sized papers, when obtainable. The 
usual weights for bank papers are foolscap 7 lb., large 
post I I lb., medium 1 3 lb., but thinner papers are 
obtainable. Bond papers are similar to banks but 
heavier in substance, and experience will teach what 
substances and sizes should be stocked. Account book 
papers follow custom as to weight, 24 lb. demy, 34 lb. 
medium,^ 44 lb. royal,^ 72 lb. imperial, and these are 

^ Some mills make medium in 32 and 34 lb., and royal in 42 
and 44 lb. ; all hand-made papers are of the customary weights 
given above. 



THE STOCK ROOM 93 

usually azure or blue laid, tub-sized, and air-dried. 
Hand-made papers are necessary for many books which 
are in constant use, to ensure the permanence of the 
records. Engine-sized account book papers are not 
recommended for stock, although the papers are suitable 
for much work of a temporary nature. Tinted writ- 
ings can be obtained in great variety, and reference to 
the sample books of the wholesale houses will serve 
to guide in making a safe stock selection. 

Only small quantities of gummed paper should be 
kept, demy being the usual size, and a paper weighing 
about I 8 lb. per ream (ungummed) is a fair quality. Non- 
curling gummed paper is of course the kind to purchase. 

Stock boards will usually be royal in size. Good 
qualities of pasteboards, two substances of ivories, a full 
range of pulp boards in various tints will be a useful 
selection. Thicker boards, useful for show cards, are 
stocked in royal and imperial, one-sided white boards, 
one-sided coated and two-sided coated, in lo- and 12- 
sheet substances, should be kept in small quantities. 

The lithographer requires litho. papers of various 
substances and qualities in sizes to suit the machines 
of his establishment. The lithographer can frequently 
transfer several jobs on to one stone of the full size of 
the machine, and work more economically than by using 
papers and machines of smaller sizes. For black work a 
fair litho. paper in several substances should be stocked, 
for colour work a heavier paper in one or two sub- 
stances only, and small quantities of plate, plan, chart 
and chromo papers will be required. All the writings 
and miscellaneous papers mentioned earlier will be in- 
cluded in the stock warehouse of the lithographer. 

Stock accounts should be kept very carefully. 
Employers should insist that paper drawn for making 
ready, for proofing, and for set-off sheets be accounted 



94 



PAPER AND ITS USES 



for as accurately as a ream of hand-made paper. It 
is only by adopting a system of accurate accounting 
that the balance between receipts and issues can be 
maintained. No issue for replacing spoiled sheets 
should be made without an entry to that effect in the 
stock ledger. Whether a card index system or a paper 
stock ledger with receipt and issue sides be the method 
of accounting, it should be possible to check the state 
of the stock at very short notice. The entries will be 
in this or similar form. Prices are kept separately, 
unless it is preferred to keep them with the stock 
details. 

Description — Printing Double Demy, 40 ib. 480's. 
Stock No. 25. Purchased from Spalding & Hodge. 



Receipts. 


Issues. 


Date. 


Quantity. 


Date. 


Job 
No. 


Quantity. 


Rms. 


Q- 


S. 


Rms. 


Q- 


s. 


Jan. I, 1914 
Mar. I, „ 


200 
480 










Jan. 3, 1 9 14 

)) 4> 55 


142 
201 


17 

153 


14 
10 







At the time of stocktaking it should not be necessary 
to close the stock room, but \{ done gradually, starting 
a few days before the end of the year (or other period), 
the stocks are taken and each stack as checked is 
marked, and issues up to the end of the year entered 
on special slips or cards placed in the stack. On the 
day of stocktaking it will not take long to adjust the 
book of balances with the additional entries. If a 
discharge has been given for every issue of paper, either 
by work sheet or by a requisition from the various 



THE STOCK ROOM 95 

departments receiving the stock, the balances should 
be correct. 

In order that sample sheets may be shown to 
customers, and to avoid frequent requisitions for single 
sheets of paper, a few sheets of all stock papers should 
be issued for a sample portfolio, and these folded to a 
convenient size, each sheet marked with stock number or 
description to prevent confusion. Reference to stock 
lists will furnish price, quantity in stock, and other 
necessary particulars. 

A separate account should be kept of off-cuts, which 
accumulate rapidly. Some can be cut to useful sizes, and 
it is frequently more economical to trim them at once 
to the nearest regular size, to parcel them in reams, and 
to mark the contents on the wrapper. A corresponding 
entry should be made in the oddment book and issues 
duly noted. All jobs worked on off-cuts should be 
charged as though the ordinary stock for such jobs had 
been used, and the charge sheet and invoice should 
show that oddments have been issued, or it may be 
difficult to explain change of paper or price when 
repeat orders are executed. 



CHAPTER XVI 

PAPER TESTING 1 

A FULL scheme for the analysis and testing of papers 
will include the following : Checking the weight of 
the ream and sheet ; the thickness of the ream and 
sheet ; examination of the physical and chemical 
constituents — fibre, sizing, loading, and colouring 
matter ; testing the tensile strength and elasticity, 
the resistance to folding or crumpling, and micro- 
scopical examination of the fibres. It is not necessary 
to carry out all these tests on every paper, but it is 
well to be prepared, if required, to compare two 
samples, using appropriate tests. 

Weight. — The weight of the ream is checked on 
the scales, and variation should not exceed 4 to 8 per 
cent, above or below the nominal weight. (See various 
kinds of papers under " Variations in Weight," on 
page 136.) A sheet of paper is weighed on a balance 
which gives a direct reading for a ream of 480, 500, 
or 5 1 6 sheets. The demy scale is a very useful little 
balance. A metal plate is supplied with the scale, a 
piece of paper is cut exactly to the size of the plate 

^ It is more convenient to use the metric system of weights and 
measures, as small quantities and dimensions are dealt with, and 
the decimal method is easier to use. Metric equivalents are : — 

I millimetre (mm.) =•039 in. i in. ^25*4 mm. 

I gramme (grm.) =*035 oz. i oz. ==28-35 grm. 

I cubic centimetre (c.c.) = '035 fl. oz. i fl. oz. =28*40 c.c. 

96 



PAPER TESTING 



97 



with a sharp knife. The piece is placed on the end of 
a hook, and the scale, marked for reams of 480, 500, 
and 5 1 6 sheets, gives the weight of a ream of demy of 
the substance of the pattern, and by reference to 
tables the equivalent 
weight in any other 
size can be found. 

Size. — The size 
of the paper is 
checked, and the 
papermaker guaran- 
tees to be within one- 
half per cent, of the 
measurement ordered. 
The paper is tested 
at the same time for 
squareness. 

Thicknessl|[of 
Sheet. — For testing 
the thickness of the 

sheet a micrometer is used. The screw micrometer 
is not so exact on a yielding material like paper as 
is the spring micrometer, which gives the reading on a 
dial in thousandths of an inch. Machines are obtain- 
able in pocket or stand form, giving measurements as 
close as ^uVo of an inch. The micrometer serves to check 
the thickness of supplies of paper or cards, and to 
indicate the bulk of a volume consisting of a certain 
number of pages or leaves, enabling covers for books 
to be prepared before the printing is completed. 

Tensile Strength and Elasticity. — These tests 
may be carried out on various machines. The method 
adopted is to cut strips of a standard width, clamp in 
the machine clips which are a definite distance apart, 
and to place the strip to be tested under tension by 

7 




14. — Paper Scale. 



98 PAPER AND ITS USES 

turning the handle of the machine, until breakage of 
the paper takes place. The machine registers the 
strain put upon the strip, and also the elongation which 
the strip sustained before fracture. The Marshall 
machine takes strips of various lengths and widths, 
and registers the tension on a hydraulic pressure gauge, 
the stretch being measured exactly and calculated on 
the length of the strip used. Leunig's testing machine 




Fig. 15. — Marshall's Paper -Testing Machine. 

A, Cylinder in which compression of liquid is produced by turning wheel B. 

C, Registering dial. D, Clips for securing slips. 

E, Clips for registering stretch. F, Cutting knife. 

G, Cutting gauge. 



registers breaking strain and stretch on two scales. 
The strip, | inch wide, is clamped between twoclips 
7 inches apart, and, by turning a handle, the strip 
under tension raises a weight at the end of a lever. 
The strain exerted by the weight is indicated on a 
scale marked in quarter-pound divisions. The stretch 
is registered at the same time by a pointer actuated 
by a separate rack. The stretch scale and pointer are 



PAPER TESTING 



99 



kept in unison with the strength lever, and the elonga- 
tion at the time of fracture is registered. This 
machine, although expensive, is acknowledged to be 
the best for high-class papers where the narrow strip 




Fig. 1 6. — Leunig Paper-Testing Machine. 



can 



be used. The Carrington machine for coarse 
papers takes a strip 2 inches wide and 7 inches be- 
tween the clips, the strain is exerted by a weighted 
lever, and the reading is in pounds. 



lOO PAPER AND ITS USES 

Bursting Strain. — For quick comparative tests 
there .'irc a numl)er of machines to choose from. The 
Hst comprises the Mullen, Southworth, Woolley, 
Aslicroft, Eddy, and Rehse machines. Testing on 
the Mullen machine is by hydraulic pressure which is 
communicated through the medium of glycerine to a 
rubber diaphragm. The paper is clamped over the 
diaphragm ; the handle of the machine is turned, pressure 
being exerted until the paper bursts ; the reading is 
given on the gauge in pounds per square inch. The 
Southworth gives a similar indication, but the fluid is 
oil, and a steel plunger punctures the paper. The 
Woolley machine is actuated by a spring and gives a 
comparative figure. The Ashcroft is a very compact 
machine, a very small plunger piercing the pajjer, the 
dial reading indicating the bursting strain in pounds 
per square inch. Two machines of this pattern are 
made, one for thin papers, and the other for papers of 
ordinary and thick substances. The Edd)^ machines 
are screw machines, also made for thick and thin 
papers, and the result is given in similar terms to other 
macliines. The Rehse machine is a cylindrical machine; 
pressure is exerted b}- a spring, and the pressure in 
l)()unds is registered on one scale, and from figures 
given on another scale the stretch can be calculated. 

These machines are exceedingly useful for rapid 
comparisons of papers, the tests being made at the 
same time. Slight variations in results can be obtained 
by turning the handles of the machines at var}'ing 
speeds, but if a uniform rate is maintained, scarcely any 
other precaution is necessary in their use. 

Opacity. — While it is possible to obtain apparatus 
for exact determination of the degree of opacity in 
paper, comparison can readily be made in a simple 
manner. A printed page is covered by pieces of the 



PAPER TESTING 



OI 



papers to be compared brought edge to edge over 
the printed matter, and the comparative degree of opa- 
city observed by the ease, or otherwise, with which the 
lettering can be seen through the papers. 

Surface or Finish. — The degree of poHsh which is 
given to the paper may be compared by feehng with 
the hand, and also by looking along the sheet. The 
comparisons can be brought to a numerical basis, but 
apparatus which would seldom be used is required for 
that purpose. 

Resistance to Wear. — An ingenious machine is 
made for testing the resistance which paper offers to 
wear as exemplified by repeated folding. A narrow 
strip is clamped at each end, kept under constant tension 
by springs, and folded backwards and forwards until 
breakage occurs. Some idea of the comparison can 
be seen by taking the following results : — 



Folding Machine Tests 







Number c 


f Foldb before Breaking. 


Description of Paper. 


E([uivalent 
Weight in 
















Demy. 


Strong 


Weak 


Mean of Two 






Direction. 


Direction. 


Directions. 


Japanese vellum - 


28 


15,840 


6,174 


11,007 


Manilla .... 


80 


5,783 


5,448 


5,616 


Loan — hand- made 


37 


2,581 


1,416 


1,998 


Ledger— mould-made - 


39 


1,344 


1,023 


1,183 


,, machine-made 


39 


1,243 


1,123 


1,183 


Bank — hand-made 


12 


1,036 


846 


941 


Typewriting — machine-made, 


9 


763 


413 


588 


all -rag 










Blue-laid — machine-made, air- 


29 


510 


394 


452 


dried 










Blue-laid — machine-made 


28 


94 


86 


90 


Printing paper 


17 


'^ 


9 


12 



The tests by the folding machine, being conducted 
on a very narrow strip, are only moderately reliable. 



102 PAPER AND ITS USES 

To compare papers a more primitive method may be 
employed. It has the virtue of simpHcity, and yet it 
gives a fair index to the amount of wear which the 
paper will withstand. Take a piece of the paper to be 
tested, about 6 inches square, roll it into a ball, then 
spread it out flat ; repeat the performance, and notice 
how many such treatments the paper stands before 
perforation takes place. Papers which are very resistant, 
such as all-rag papers and air-dried browns, will assume 
a cloth-like appearance as they become softer, and it 
will be a long time before perforation takes place. 

Sizing". — To test papers for efficiency of sizing write 
rather heavily upon the surface with ordinary pen and 
ink. Red ink is usually more penetrative than black, 
so it is better to use a good black ink as a standard 
test. As some papers, such as account book papers, 
have to stand erasure, they should be tested for ink 
bearing after abrasion of the surface. 

To test for gelatine sizing cut up a small quantity 
of paper and boil for a few minutes in a beaker 
containing sufficient water to cover the paper. Pour 
off into a test tube, cool, add a few drops of a 2 per 
cent, solution of tannic acid. A flocculent precipitate 
indicates that the paper has been sized with gelatine. 
Heat the liquid, and the precipitate will coagulate and 
cling to the sides of the test tube. A comparative test 
is made by taking an equal quantity of each kind of 
paper, boiling in similar quantities of water for the 
same period, and adding the same amount of tannic 
acid solution, and comparing the results. 

Resin sizing is determined in a different manner. 
A comparatively large quajitity of paper is extracted 
in a small quantity of liquid. Take a strip of paper, 
about 8 inches by i inch, pleat it repeatedly until it 
can be placed in a test tube, and cover it with rectified 



PAPER TESTING IO3 



fc. 



spirit. Place the test tube in a beaker containin 
water, and heat slowly. The spirit will boil before 
the water reaches boiling point, and in a short time the 
resin will be dissolved. As soon as the solution is 
cool, pour it into a test tube half full of distilled water, 
and the resin will appear as a ring, whitish in colour, 
at the junction of the two liquids. If the test tube 
is shaken up the opalescent appearance of the liquid 
indicates the presence of resin. 

Starch. — A very weak solution of iodine in potassium 
iodide is dropped on the paper with a glass rod, or a 
strip of the paper is dipped into the solution. If a 
very small quantity of starch is present in the paper 
a blue reaction will take place, and the larger the 
amount, the darker the coloration. Therefore in order 
to form an opinion as to the quantity of starch used, 
a very pale solution must be used, or the colour may 
be too dark to enable one to make comparisons. An 
aqueous extract of the paper may be treated with the 
iodine solution, and if a comparative test is to be made, 
it is necessary to work on each paper with identical 
quantities of water for boiling, and iodine solution for 
testing. A faint colour must not be taken as evidence 
of added starch, as in rag pulp it is very difficult to 
remove starch from the raw materials. 

Colouring: Matters The tests for colours should 

be for the purpose of discovering whether they are 
reasonably fast to light and when wetted. The first 
can be tested by exposing the paper to a steady light 
— not sunlight — for a period according to the time of 
year. A photographic printing frame with a black 
disc on plain glass is a convenient method of testing, 
and if, after forty-eight hours in summer, and a pro- 
portionately longer period at other times, the difference 
between the exposed and protected areas is marked, 



104 PAPER AND ITS USES 

the paper must not be used where a permanent colour 
is required. Some tints will bleach completely with 
the treatment, and should be avoided as stock lines. 
To test water-fastness a piece of paper is left in 
warm water, or placed in cold water and heated slowly. 
If the colour is soluble it will very soon tint the 
water. 

Coloured papers for pasting to book covers or 
boxes should be tested by pasting down to the boards 
intended for use. Some boards have a curious effect 
on certain tinted papers, owing to the presence of 
chemicals in the finished boards, and acidity or 
alkalinity may render change of covering paper 
necessar)'. 

Absorbent Papers. — Blotting paper may be tested 
by the mounting test. To carry this out, cut strips 
from each direction of the paper — length and width — 
6 inches long by i inch in width. Make a pencil 
mark half an inch from the end, and immerse the strip 
as far as the pencil mark in water or ink. The fluid 
immediately commences to mount the strip, and the 
speed at which this takes place is an indication of the 
relative initial absorbency of papers tested by this 
method. In practice, blotting paper must absorb im- 
mediately, as the pressure usually applied will, if the 
paper is not sufficiently absorbent, spread the ink. 
For this reason the rising of the fluid should be marked 
and checked in the first ten to sixty seconds, and when 
several tests in each direction have been made, the 
figures tabulated and the mean rate calculated. It 
is convenient to measure in millimetres rather than in 
fractions of an inch. Ink makes the better testing 
fluid, as the way in which the blotting paper carries up 
the colouring matter can be seen at once, and a paper 
which is superior in this respect will usually be the 



PAPER TESTING I05 

better paper. The zone test is an elaboration of the 
ink test. A small quantity (i c.c. or '5 c.c.) is allowed 
to fall a drop at a time upon the blotting paper, and 
when the blot is dry, the area of the outer non- 
absorbent zone, its proportion to the inner absorbent 
zone, and its regularity will serve as an index to the 
behaviour of the paper in use. Other factors in the 
choice of blottings are the resistance to wear, absence 
of fluff, and the resistance to surface dirt. A very rough 
blotting paper may not be entirely satisfactory in those 
respects, but, on the other hand, a very smooth paper 
may be produced at the expense of absorbency. 

Copying papers are tested in the copying press 
with a document written with copyable ink, and the 
efficiency of the paper judged either by comparison 
with a standard sample, or merely by the clearness of 
the resulting copy. 

Duplicating papers may be tested by drawing a 
fine pen charged with writing ink across the surface, 
and immediately rubbing the ink to see if it smears. 
Half-sized duplicating papers have the same method 
applied, but should be allowed five to ten seconds after 
writing. These methods are superseded by the use of 
the duplicating machine, if available. 

Mineral Matter — Loading. — A weighed quantity 
of paper — say i gm. — is torn into small fragments, 
placed in a porcelain crucible, previously weighed, and 
subjected to the intense heat of a Bunsen burner until 
the paper is consumed and the residue reduced to a 
white ash, or in any case until all carbonaceous matter 
is burnt off. See that any black deposit on the crucible 
is burnt away. Cool the crucible, weigh it with its 
contents, deduct the weight of the crucible, and the 
weight, multiplied by 100, will give the percentage of 
mineral matter present in the paper. 



Io6 PAPER AND ITS USES 

Weight of crucible - - 6*25 gm. 
Weight of paper - - - I'oo ,, 

Weight of crucible and ash - 6-365 „ 
Z>^^/<'t-/ weight of crucible 6*25 ,, 
Weight of ash - - '115x1 00 =11 '5 percent. 

The ash, if not required for subsequent examination, 
can be thrown away, the crucible wiped out and weighed 
again to check the net weight of ash. It is usual to 
calculate the whole of the ash as added mineral water, 
although all fibrous materials have ash of some weight, 
e.g., cotton '12 per cent., esparto 32 to 5 per cent. A 
delicate balance with weights from 50 gm. to i mgm. 
is advised for exact results. 

Fibre Composition. — It is necessary to exclude 
mechanical wood from most papers, and its detection 
is rendered easy by the use of certain solutions. A 
solution is made up of i gm. of phloroglucine in 
50 c.c. of rectified spirit with 25 c.c. of concentrated 
hydrochloric acid added. If a drop of this solution 
is placed on paper in which mechanical wood is present 
an intensely red coloration will follow. The amount of 
mechanical wood may be estimated by the depth of 
colour, but this is very difficult, as may be proved by 
comparing the results obtained on papers containing 
40 and 70 per cent, of mechanical wood respectively. 
Some aniline colours are altered in colour by the 
acid of the solution, although the colour is not 
the same as that given by mechanical wood, and it 
appears and fades in a different manner. A solution 
of 2 per cent, of aniline sulphate (i gm. in 50 c.c. of 
water) will give a yellow coloration in the presence of 
mechanical wood. As wood fibres, jute, and some other 
fibres which have not been thoroughly cleaned, give 
colour reactions as though mechanical wood were 



PAPER TESTING IO7 

present, the microscope should be used for con- 
firmation. 

Papers containing straw or esparto fibre are coloured 
pink, pale or deep according to the quantity of these 
fibres present, when heated in a weak solution of 
aniline sulphate. Strips of paper treated at the same 
time will afford comparative tests. Bamboo paper 
gives a pink reaction in the heated aniline sulphate 
solution, but some grasses, such as delta grass, are not 
affected. 

Microscopical Examination. — Colour reactions re- 
veal the presence of mechanical wood, straw, and esparto 
in papers, but the reagents used do not reveal the 
presence of chemical wood or rag fibres, nor do they 
distinguish between cotton and linen fibres. In order 
to obtain more exact conclusions the microscope is 
employed. Although a powerful microscope is a 
valuable possession, a moderate instrument is pre- 
ferable ; a microscope equal to the " London," with a 
combination of eye-pieces and objectives to give 
magnifications of 59 to 270 diameters, will be found 
excellent for the examination of fibres. A supply of 
slips, 3 inches by I inch, and half an ounce of cover 
glasses J inch diameter will be required. 

The fibres in most cases are securely fastened with 
the sizing materials, and to remove these the paper 
is boiled in a weak solution of caustic soda. After 
boiling, the paper is washed, and, with teasing needles, 
little pieces of paper picked out and placed on a glass 
slip. Or the paper is placed in a test tube with a little 
water, the thumb placed over the mouth of the tube, 
and by shaking violently the paper is soon reduced 
to pulp. A very small portion of pulp is placed 
on the slide, and superfluous moisture carefully re- 
moved with filter paper. A stain makes the markings 



I08 PAPER AND ITS USES 

on the fibres more easily seen, and if a suitable stain 
is employed, some differentiation in colouring the 
various fibres takes place. 

A good standard solution is iodine in potassium 
iodide, with an accessory acid solution : — 

Iodine Solution. Accessory Solution. 

Iodine - i'i5gm. \ Glycerine - lo c.c. 

Potassium iodide 2*0 ,, 
Water - - 20 c.c. 



Water - - - 5 
Sulphuric - - 15 



A drop of the iodine solution is placed on the fibre 
on the slide. After a minute or so it is blotted off, and 
a drop of the accessory solution is added. The fibres 
are separated with teasing needles (needles mounted in 
wooden handles) until well distributed on the slide. 
A cover glass is cleaned by rubbing with a piece of 
wash leather, and dropped on the slide. The excess 
of solution is carefully absorbed with the filter paper, 
and the slide is ready for examination. A description 
of each of the principal fibres is given, with the normal 
dimensions of the unbeaten fibres and the coloration 
given by the solutions specified. For general examina- 
tion the lower powers of the microscope will be found 
most useful, the higher magnifications being employed 
for studying the markings and other characteristics of 
the fibres. The dimensions given of cotton, linen, and 
hemp fibres will not be met with in papers made from 
those materials, as in beating the lengths are shortened, 
and frequently the fibres are split longitudinally. 
Tissues, copyings, and Bible papers show the greatest 
reduction of the fibres. 

Cotton. — Fibre 30 to 40 mm. x'02 mm. Stained 
violet-red to brown. The fibres are long flattened 
tubes with large channel and numerous twists, blunt 
ends, and some fibres have cross markings. For a 
blotting the fibres are cut into short lengths, and the 



PAPERMAKING FIBRES 

Magnified 50 diameters 




Fig. 17. — Rag Fibres Unbeaten. 
A, Linen. B, Cotton. 



,vi. 



Fig. 18. — Rag Fibres Beaten. 




Fig. 19. — Hemp. 




TTf/TVI 




Fig. 20. —Manilla. 



Fig. 21. — Jute. 



[Fare p. 109. 



PAPER TESTING IO9 

characteristics can be easily observed. The fibres are 
reduced in diameter as well as in length by prolonged 
beating for strong papers, the ends are frayed, and it is 
not easy to identify the cotton in a finely-beaten rag 
mixture (Figs. 17 and 18). 

Linen. — Fibre 30 to 40 mm. x -02 5 mm. Stained 
violet-red to brown. Linen is the fibre from the stem 
of the flax. The fibres have thicker walls than cotton, 
from which it is easily distinguished in its unbeaten 
state, being- a smoother, rounder fibre, with marks like 
joints at intervals, small cross markings, and pointed 
ends. When beaten finely it is not possible to 
distinguish linen from cotton (Figs. 17 and 18). 

Hemp. — Fibre 20 mm. x*02 mm. Stained, un- 
bleached fibre, yellow to brown ; bleached, brown-red to 
wine-red. In general appearance the fibre is similar to 
linen, with slightly thinner walls, more markings, and 
at the places where joint markings occur are also little 
hairs. The ends of the fibres are rounded or flattened. 
The fibre in paper is usually beaten so finely as not to 
be recognised (Fig. 19). 

Manilla Hemp. — Fibre 7 mm. x*02 mm. Stained 
yellow to blue, according to amount of bleaching and 
cleaning of the raw material. The fibres are like hemp 
fibres, but the canal is much larger, and accompanying 
the fibres are many oblong transparent cells, sometimes 
occurring like blocks of bricks (Fig. 20). 

Jute.— Fibre 2*5 mm. x '022 mm. Stained, un- 
bleached, }'ellow ; bleached, brown. Jute fibres resemble 
linen and hemp, but the central canal is irregular in 
width, widening in places and narrowing again. The 
ends of the fibres are pointed and somewhat flattened 
(Fig. 21). 

Straw. — Fibre I'S mm. x '015 mm. Stained 
greyish to blue. Similar to esparto, but the fibres are 
more flexible, and become kinked when made into 



no PAPER AND ITS USES 

paper. Serrated cells and transparent oval cells are 
present (Fig. 22). 

Esparto. — Fibre 1*5 mm. x '012 mm. Stained 
greyish-blue to colourless. The fibres are very fine and 
short with pointed ends. Characteristics of esparto are 
the comma-shaped hairs and the serrated cells (Fig. 23). 

Bamboo. — Fibre 4 mm. X 'O i 5 mm. Stained yellow 
to pale brownish-green. Resembling esparto, with 
cylindrical fibres with pointed ends, and usually a large 
number of transparent oval cells are found in paper 
made from bamboo (Fig. 24). 

Chemical Wood. — The fibres vary considerabl}- in 
length and thickness. Stained blue to colourless. 
Consisting of flat ribbon-like fibres, broad flat cells 
pitted and perforated, others similar to sections of a 
plant stalk, they are on the whole unlike any other 
fibres. A few fibres resemble linen fibres, but com- 
parison will reveal differences. The differentiation 
between pine, spruce, poplar, birch is unnecessar}^ for 
ordinary paper testing (Fig. 25). 

Mechanical Wood. — Stained yellow. This pulp 
is unmistakable, owing to the broken pieces of various 
sizes and shapes, fragments of fibres torn awa)' from the 
original wood, held together by cells, and showing pits 
and pores. Most newspapers are made of a mixture 
of chemical and mechanical wood, and microscopic ex- 
amination of these mixtures furnishes an easy wa}' of 
becoming familiar with the appearance of the different 
wood pulps (Fig. 26). 

To arrive at a correct result, as regards the pro- 
portion of fibres in a mixture, is not at all easy. By 
taking a series of fields on one slide, counting and 
tabulating the contents under the headings of the 
different fibres, and averaging the fields, a fair ap- 
proximation can be obtained. For comparison of two 
or more papers this will usually suffice, but consider- 



PAPERMAKING FIBRES 

Magnified 50 diameters 



^ 



Va 



i^ 



Fig. 22. — Straw 



/ I 



^""^V 



Fig. 23. — Esparto. 

"1 



Fi(^,. 24. — Bamboo. 



. '^ >, 






Fig. 25. — Chemical Wood. 
A, Pine. B, Poplar. 



F'iG. 26. —Mechanical Wood. 

{Face p. no. 



PAPER TESTING III 

able experience is required before one is able to 
formulate the furnish of a paper consisting of two or 
more kinds of fibre, as the different fibres have varying 
dimensions and weights. 

Printing Qualities. — The test for comparison with 
a standard paper is carried out by printing on the 
papers under examination at the same time, under the 
same conditions, and judging the brilliance, solidity of 
colour, absorption of ink, and noting how the colours 
dry. The test for the efficiency of sizing will have 
shown whether the paper is likely to be too porous or 
too hard, but the actual test for printing is advisable when 
taking a large quantity of a special making into stock. 

The trouble of registering colour work has been 
dealt with at length elsewhere. If a paper has newly 
arrived from the mill, it is scarcely reasonable to 
condemn it on a trial for register before a little time 
has elapsed for maturing. It is well to examine the 
bulk to discover if all the supply is cut with the same 
machine direction. 

Various Faults. — Paper which has not been 
properly retreed — that is, the extraction of faulty sheets 
has not been done closely — will be found unsuitable 
for the highest class of work. The faults in the sheets 
may comprise spots, specks, creases, superficial mark- 
ings and torn paper. The spots and specks may be 
caused by various foreign substances — sand, dirt, knots 
of fibre, pieces of rubber, sealing-wax, little lumps of 
mineral matter or froth. The foreign matter varies 
with different papers, and will be more apparent in 
super-calendered papers than in those which are not 
highly rolled, as the rolling brings faults into greater 
prominence. Creases formed before or during calender- 
ing render sheets unfit for use. Superficial markings 
may occur at the drying cylinders or from marks on 
the other rolls, resulting in rust marks, streaks, and 



112 



PAPER AND ITS USES 



sometimes in bleaching coloured papers in lines. Torn 
paper shows hurried sorting, as it is not difficult to see 
such a fault when turning over the sheets. In various 
coated papers sheets with uneven coating or surface 
markings should not be included as " good " paper. 
A paper which is even in texture cannot be considered 
matched by a supply which is " wild " or cloudy in the 
look-through. Although wildness is sometimes accom- 
panied by strength in paper, this is not s.\wa.ys so, and 
it is desirable that printing papers should not be wild. 

To analyse papers in order to discover chemical 
residues and to identify them requires some very 
delicate tests, and unless one has had an extensive 
chemical training, mistaken conclusions may result. 



The various apparatus and chemicals necessary for 
paper testing as detailed in this chapter (other than 
machines, chemical balance and microscope) are detailed 
below. 



1 glass measure, 50 c.c. capa- 

city. 

2 beakers, 225 c.c. 
6 beakers, 60 c.c. 

I dozen test tubes, 5 in. x | in. 
I test-tube stand to take 6 

tubes. 
6 porcelain crucibles without 

covers. No. i. 
I tripod stand, 7 in. x 5 in. 
I piece gauze asbestos covered, 
I pipeclay triangle. 
I Bunsen burner ^ or one spirit 

3 ft.rubbertubingj lamp,7oc.c. 



2 dozen glass slips, 3 in. x 
I in. 

h oz. cover glasses, No. 3, f 
in. diameter. 

2 teasing needles. 

I oz. tannic acid. 

I oz. aniline sulphate. 

I oz. caustic soda. 

5 oz. rectified spirit. 

25 c.c. iodine in potass, iodide 
sol. 

25 c.c. sulphuric acid and gly- 
cerine sol. 

25 c.c. phloroglucine solution. 



Messrs Townson & Mercer Ltd., of 34 Camomile 
Street, London, E.C., undertake to supply the whole of 
the articles for i 7s. 6d. if the Bunsen burner is desired, 
and for 1 6s. if a spirit lamp is to be used. 



CHAPTER XVII 
ALPHABETICAL LIST OF PAPERS 

Account Book Papers. — Strong, even, well-made papers, 
hard tub-sized, with good writing surface, usually azure 
laid. The finish of both sides of the paper should be 
as nearly as possible equal, and opacity is essential. 
Hand-made and the best machine-made papers are all- 
rag, tub-sized, air-dried. Cheap varieties of account 
book papers can be obtained at 2jd. per lb., but these 
are engine-sized, and the strength is not sufficient to 
bear the handling to which account books generally are 
subjected. 

Angle Papers. — Envelope papers, made in the usual way, 
and, after slitting, cut at an angle in order to economise 
in cutting the envelope blanks. The angle may be 
varied to suit customers' requirements. 

Anti-Acid Manillas. — See Cable and Insulating Papers. 

Backing Papers. — For stereotyping purposes. Brown 
papers which paste down easily and strengthen the 
flong. 

Bag Papers. — Brown papers of medium substance for bags, 
usually royal in size. 

Banks. — Thin tough papers, glazed or unglazed, for use 
where strong papers of little weight are required. Banks 
run from hand-made, tub-sized, air-dried, to machine- 
made, engine-sized, machine-finish, and the prices from 
2S. 6d, to 3d. per lb. The usual sizes and weights are : — 
foolscap, 7 lb. ; large post, 11 lb. ; medium, 1 3 lb. 

Bank-note Papers. — Hand-made papers for which new 
linen cuttings are used ; the notes having to withstand 
considerable handling, the paper is specially strong and 
tough. Watermarks of special design are employed ; 
the sheets are made twice the size of a bank-note, each 
note having three deckled edges. 
8 ^^3 



114 PAPER AND ITS USES 

Bible Papers. — Thin printing papers of good quality, 
opaque and strong. Used for Bibles and other books 
where a large number of pages is required to occupy 
a small bulk. 

Bill Papers. — Hand- or machine-made, all-rag papers, tub- 
sized, air-dried. Being used for documents such as 
promissory notes, bills of exchange, etc., the paper must 
be very durable. 

Biscuit Caps. — Thin white M.G. papers, employed for 
making bags for confectionery and similar trades, in 
various sizes. The bags are frequently made up at 
the mill. 

Blotting Papers are made from the tenderest of old cotton 
rags, and are free from loading and sizing. Made in 
white, pink, buff, green, blue, and silurian, the usual 
size is demy, and the weight 38 lb. per ream of 480 
sheets, at prices from 4d. to 8d. per lb. Other stock 
substances are demy 27, 48, 60, 80, and 100 lb, 
Blottings for interleaving diaries and similar works are 
sometimes made of a mixture of rag and soda wood 
pulps, or even entirely of wood pulp, in much lighter 
weights, and in various sizes equivalent to demy 14 lb., 
at prices from 2jd. per lb., according to quality. 
Enamelled blottings are made by pasting enamelled 
papers to blottings of the usual substance. 

Bond Papers are similar in character to banks, but are 
heavier in weight. The term is often applied to 
superior looking engine-sized writings of medium sub- 
stance, but strength is essential in all papers included 
in this class. 

Bowl Papers, made from the waste from flax spinning mills, 
unsized, bleached or unbleached, are used for covering 
the rolls in calendering machines, where there are 
alternate rolls of compressed paper and chilled iron. 
The paper is made in sheets, square and circular, in the 
substance equivalent to 10 lb. demy. 

Box Boards, in various qualities, from the common grey 
board to the tough glazed board, made from different 
wastes, well rolled. Used by boxmakers, cut and 
creased by machinery, folded and fastened by glue or 
metal fastenings. Boxes for all trades are thus made, 



ALPHABETICAL LIST OF PAPERS II5 

some being quite plain, others covered with coloured or 
fancy papers. 

Bright Enamel Papers. — Enamelled papers, coated on 
one side only, finished with a high polish produced by 
calendering and brushing. Used for labels for various 
purposes, the design printed in several colours and 
bronze. 

Bristol Boards. — Fine boards for black and white drawings. 
Various boards are called "Bristol," but the name 
rightly applies to those boards made of fine rag paper 
throughout, hot pressing being the method employed 
for obtaining the high surface. They are manufactured 
with the utmost care, free from all defects. Stock sizes, 
foolscap, demy, medium, royal, and imperial, and as 
papers of these sizes are pasted, and the finished boards 
trimmed all round, the boards are slightly smaller than 
the sizes of the papers. 

Browns. — Brown wrapping papers are made of various 
materials and in many qualities and substances. Rope 
browns, air-dried, cylinder-dried are three kinds, " rope " 
being properly made from old roi)es, but some papers sold 
under the name have wood pulps in their composition. 
Browns are made on the Fourdrinier machine, either 
dried on cylinders as ordinary papers, or cut up and hung 
to become air-dried. Air-dried browns are much more 
flexible and more durable than cylinder-dried papers. 
Browns are usually sold by the cwt., prices ranging from 
8s. 6d. to 22s. 6d. per cwt. Usual sizes are shown on 
page 142. See also Wrappings. 

Butter Papers. — These are greaseproof pajjers used for 
wrapping butter and similar articles. Vegetable parch- 
ment papers are used, imitation parchments, and papers 
treated with a solution of albumen and salt. Butter 
papers are glazed or unglazed. 

Cable Papers. — Also known as insulating papers, which 
better describes their purpose. These papers are made 
from various materials, such as manilla, jute, and some- 
times all wood ; some are unsized, but others are hard- 
sized. Strength is essential, as they are cut to narrow 
widths, from one-sixth of an inch upwards, wound round 
the individual wires which go to make up cables. The 



Il6 PAPER AND ITS USES 

covered wires are dried and the whole coated with some 
waterproofing non-conductive substance to ensure com- 
plete insulation. See Anti-acid Manillas. 

Caps. — Thin brown wrappings, used in a variety of trades, 
fall under this general description. 

Carbolic Paper. — Strong packing paper impregnated with 
carbolic acid, used for packing goods liable to attack 
by insects or fungi. Carbolic acid being a powerful 
germicide, and poisonous to insects, acts as protection. 

Carbon Paper. — This is a class of paper increasing in use. 
It consists of a paper with a coating of colour, ground 
in an oily or waxy medium, applied to one or both 
sides of the sheet. The pigment, for the black, mauve 
and blue carbons, is largely composed of lampblack, 
but other colouring materials are used. The paper is 
unrolled from the web, the colour ai^plied to the surface, 
and brushes rub the coating into the paper. Passing 
over heated and cooled cylinders the paper receives its 
finish, and is reeled and allowed to mature. Afterwards 
the paper is cut to special or standard sizes (foolscap 
folio and large post cpiarto). By the use of a very thin 
paper and very thin carbon pa[)ers, as many as twelve 
copies of a typewritten document may be obtained at 
one time. To make this possible the finest carbons are 
coated on the thinnest tissue paper procurable. Carbon 
papers for special purposes include two-sided, greaseless, 
copyable and hektograph. 

Cards. — Pasteboards, ivory boards and pulp boards are cut 
into cards and put up in packets of 52 and 1,040. 
Retree cards have the wrappers inside out. Sizes of 
cards are given on page 140. 
Carpet Felt Papers. — Thick, loosely-felted papers, having 
very little strength. Made of waste papers, grey in 
colour, used for placing under carpets to prevent marking 
by floorboards, to give a better feel to the floor covering, 
and, when impregnated with certain ingredients, to 
prevent moth infesting the carpet. Made in widths of 
54 and 60 inches and sold in rolls of 12 and 25 yards. 
Carriage Panels. — A special variety of compressed mill- 
boards, afterwards thoroughly waterproofed and used for 
roofing railway and other carriages. 



ALPITAP.ETICAL LIST OF PAPP:RS II7 

Cartridges.— Strong papers, the best qualities are tub-sized, 
originally made for cartridge manufacture, but now used 
for cover papers and as cheap drawings. 
Casings. — Comparatively thin brown papers, used for 

lining cases, crates, etc. 
Chart Papers.— Largely used by lithographers for map and 
chart printing. Machine-made, the best qualities are 
all-rag, tub-sized, with smooth surface. Must be strong, 
pliable, tough, resistant to wear, and at the same time 
a good printing surface is essential. The manufacture 
is arranged so as to avoid subsequent stretch. 
Cheque Papers.— Good quality of paper, specially made 
for strength, usually all-rag. Special watermarks may 
be employed, or protection from fraud is obtained by 
special printing. Other checiue papers contain chemical 
compounds which render alteration or erasure easy of 
detection. The means adopted for erasure cause 
chemical combinations which alter the colour of the 
ink, or develop chemical change which discolours the 
paper. 
Chromo Papers. — Fine coated papers for colour litho- 
graphy, having a thick coating on a good body paper, 
finished dulf or with a good surface. Usual sizes, 
medium, royal, double crown, imperial. The weights 
listed are usually those of the uncoated paper. 
Cigarette Papers.— Tissues of finest quality, wove or laid, 
thin, strong, free from loading and taste, and must burn 
easily. Ropes form the basis of the paper, fine beating 
being essential. Some papers have chemical additions 
to the pulp in order to ensure even combustion. 
Cloth-lined Paper.— Cotton cloth, equivalent to scrim or 
common muslins, according to quality, having paper 
facing. Cloth-centred paper has thin paper pasted on 
each side, while cloth-backed papers are of better quality, 
with a fair cloth on the back. Useful where much 
handling is required. Cloth-lined cards (sometimes 
described as linen-lined) are thicker substances than the 
papers. Surface enamelled cloth-lined cards are first 
made as cloth-backed cards and then enamelled with the 
coloured coating and plate glazed. 



Il8 PAPER AND ITS USES 

Coils. — Used for various purposes, such as telegraph, time 
recording machines, cash registers, music rolls for piano 
players, wiping the die in relief stamping, and for print- 
ing small forms on the reel. Papers are slit from the 
full reel, and re-wound on centres suitable for the 
machine or other spindles. 

Collar Papers. — Papers for making paper collars and 
similar articles ; made of wood pulp with a woven 
cotton or linen fabric rolled down to the paper, the 
surface filled with mineral and the whole highly rolled. 

Copying Papers. — Thin glazed or unglazed papers of the 
same character and composition as tissues, but some- 
times having a small amount of mineral matter added to 
ensure perfect copying. These papers are used for 
taking press copies of correspondence, the original being 
written (or typewritten) with copyable ink. The 
copying paper is damped, the superfluous moisture 
removed with a sheet of drying royal {(/.v.), an oiled 
sheet placed at the back of the copying page and the 
whole placed in the copying press and given a good 
squeeze. One or more perfect copies of the correspon- 
dence can be obtained by this method. As copying 
books are made with 500 or 1,000 leaves, the reams are 
made up of 500 sheets. Rotary copying machines 
employ copying paper in rolls, sometimes perforated at 
regular intervals, a damping roller preparing the paper : 
the copy is taken by rotary pressure. Everdamp copy- 
ing paper eliminates the damping roller from this class 
of machine. 

Cork Paper. — For packing bottles, coarse wrapping paper 
is covered with adhesive, and on this powdered cork 
is sprinkled making an elastic packing material. For 
cigarette tips very thin sheets of cork are pasted to 
tissues and cut to widths suitable for the well-known 
cork tips. 

Corrugated Paper. — The corrugation is effected by 
machine, the corrugated paper being glued or pasted to a 
flat web of similar paper. Commonly the thinnest straw- 
boards are used, but for better classes white papers are 
employed. Obtainable in sheets or rolls, corrugated paper 
serves as protective packing for many classes of goods. 



ALPHABETICAL LIST OF PAPERS II9 

Cover Papers. — The term is applied to a large class of 
fancy papers, made in many shades, substances and 
sizes, suitable for the covers of pamphlets, booklets, 
price lists, for box covering, and the neutral shades for 
photographic albums and mounts. The qualities vary 
with the prices, which range from 2d. to 8d. per lb., the 
sizes following those most in demand, viz., medium (for 
demy), royal, etc. 

Crayon Papers. — Drawing papers specially prepared for 
crayon work, with a rough surface, or finished smooth 
on one side. Hand-made or machine-made white or 
tinted papers are obtainable. 

Crepe Papers. — Tissues in tints and deep colours, crinkled 
by passing through rollers bearing the pattern. The 
paper is much reduced in length, often to less than half 
the original length. Made up in rolls of 20 inches wide, 
2h yards long. Used for many fancy purposes, candle 
and lamp shades, artificial flowers, etc. 

Cutlery Papers. — Thin brown papers, glazed on one or 
both sides, manufactured with special care to avoid 
acidity, so that they are sometimes finished with some 
alkalinity in order that cutlery and similar articles wrapped 
in the paper shall not be liable to attack from residues 
in the paper. 

Drapers' Caps. — Very thin brown papers, glazed on one 
side (M.G.), made of wood pulp, used for wrapping 
small articles in many trades besides that of drapers ; 
usual size, double crown. 

Drawing Papers are made of the best and strongest rag 
fibres, free from impurities of all kinds. The highest 
classes of drawing papers are hand-made from un- 
bleached fibre, tub-sized, with special treatment to 
avoid deterioration of the sizing, air-dried, and finished 
with various surfaces to suit different purposes. Machine- 
made drawing papers are made of similar materials 
with similar treatment, but papers of very fair quality, 
made entirely of chemical wood and engine-sized, are 
on the market. Cartridge papers are frequently used 
as substitutes for ordinary machine-made drawing papers. 
The usual sizes are royal, imperial, double elephant, and 
antiquarian. 



I20 PAPER AND ITS USES 

Drying Royal. — Strong, unsized papers, royal in size, 
used in copying books to absorb the excess of moisture 
after the copying paper has been wetted. Blotting 
paper is not sufficiently strong to stand the handling 
to which the drying royal is subjected. Hand-made 
papers of this class are all-rag, but other fibres are used 
for some of those made on the machine. Weight, 
44 lb. or 88 lb. per ream of 480 sheets. 

Duplex Papers may be made of two layers of differently 
coloured papers brought together in the wet state and 
rolled together, or may be coated with different colours, 
after the paper is made, as duplex art papers. 

Duplicating Papers. — Unsized or half-sized papers used 
for taking copies on cyclostyle, mimeograph and similar 
duplicating machines. Best qualities are composed 
largely of esparto, but the common varieties contain 
mechanical wood. Usual sizes: double foolscap 24 lb., 
large post 18 lb. per ream of 480 sheets. 

Embossed Papers. — Papers of various qualities and 
colours are run through rollers engraved with patterns, 
by which means the papers are permanently embossed. 
Hard cover papers retain the patterns better than softer 
papers, but many kinds, repp, linen, crash, crocodile and 
other leather patterns are made upon soft papers. Em- 
bossed papers find favour as cover papers and box 
covering papers. 

Enamelled Papers are body papers with a mineral coating 
on one side, white or coloured, the surface being highly 
polished. Used for labels, box coverings, and outside 
wrappers of various kinds, printed in one or more 
colours. 

Engine-sized Papers. — The majority of papers are sized 
with resin, which is added to the pulp in the beating 
engine, hence the term " engine-sized " (E.S.). The 
attempts to size with animal size in the engine are not 
completely successful, as a large part of the gelatine, 
being in solution, goes away with the water. Most 
machine-made papers which are tub-sized are to some 
extent engine-sized. 

Envelope Papers. — All kinds of paper may be used for 
envelope making, but papers highly glazed on one side 



ALPHABETICAL LLST OF PAPERS 121 

are usually meant. The highly-glazed surface is more 
suited for writing, while the rougher side takes the gum 
for the flap better than a burnished surface. Envelope 
papers are usually cut at an angle to prevent waste 
when cutting out blanks for envelopes. Demonstration 
of the waste involved by the use of square paper can be 
made by opening an ordinary envelope, and marking it 
out on an ordinary sheet of paper. 

Feather-weight Paper.— A term applied to bulky book 
papers much in favour for current fiction. The fibre is 
esparto, beaten quickly, no loading, but little sizing, 
very'little pressure while passing through the machine. 
The fibre being loose occupies a large space, and the 
paper is very light for its bulk, hence the term. Usual 
sizes and weights : double crown 30 to 60 lb., double 
demy 40 to 70 lb., and quad crown 55 to 120 lb. per 
ream of 516 sheets. 

Filter Papers are used in chemical laboratories to separate 
substances in suspension from liquids. It is essential 
that the papers be entirely free from chemicals, and 
allow liquids to pass freely while retaining suspended 
matter. All-rag fibre is used, but grey filter papers may 
contain a proportion of wool fibre. Filter papers are 
made as blotting papers, and subjected to special treat- 
ment to remove all matter that is likely to confuse 
chemical analyses. Usual size, 24 by 24 inches. 

Foil Papers.— Metals reduced to fine powder are dusted 
upon the paper which has received a coating of adhesive, 
and when all is dry the surface is highly burnished. 
Embossed foil papers are passed through special rolls. 
Used for covering boxes and picture mounts. 

Fruit Paper. — Thin papers, similar to tissues in texture, 
but much lower in quality, used for wrapping fruits — 
apples, oranges, etc.— before packing. It is found that 
this isolation justifies the trouble and expense, an 
increased percentage of sound fruit reaching the market. 
Some wrappers are printed with the merchant's name 
and address. 

Glazed Boards.— Millboards which are given a very high 
surface by repeated rolling. 



122 PAPER AND ITS USES 

Grass-bleached Tissues. — This term is applied to special 
tissues to describe papers quite free from chemicals. 
The ideal method of bleaching linen is by exposing on 
grass, and though these tissues are not treated in that 
manner, the ideal papers which will not tarnish silver 
or other bright metal goods are so described. Used for 
wrapping silver goods, and for protecting metal decora- 
tions and buttons on uniforms. 
Greaseproof Papers. — Used for packing butter, lard, and 
other provisions ; may be prepared as such in the pulp 
by prolonged beating, " wet " pulp being the result of 
long beating. The resulting paper is close, transparent, 
and, with ordinary sizing, is greaseproof. Other papers 
are rendered greaseproof by immersion in a bath of 
albumen and salt, this giving the paper an impervious 
coating. Vegetable parchment papers are used for 
similar purposes. 

Grocery Papers. — The well-known blue sugar paper and 
purple sugar bags are examples of this class of paper. 
They are made of low-grade pulps, with which are 
mixed waste papers, a moderate amount of loading, and 
aniline" colours. The squares are cut at the mill and 
bags too are often produced at the paper mill. 

Hosiery Papers. — These are special heavy white wrapping 
papers, prepared to stand a good amount of handling, 
used as wrappers for packets of hosiery stock, and for 
similar purposes. 

Imitation Art Paper. — To meet the demand for a cheaper 
paper than art paper, with some of the characteristics of 
the latter, such as opacity, absorbency, and a surface 
suitable for printing half-tones, imitation art papers have 
been introduced. They contain a large proportion of 
loading, and receive a good surface, the water finish 
being usually adopted. Stocked in double crown, double 
demy, double royal, quad crown, and quad demy. 

Impression Papers. — Another term for dupHcating papers. 
Set' Duplicating Papers. 

Index Boards. — Pulp boards made of strong stuff, even, 
hard-sized, well-rolled, giving a good writing surface. It 
is important for card index systems to employ a card which 
is made in one thickness only ; pasteboards bend and split 



ALPHABETICAL LIST OF PAPERS 1 23 

at the corners if frequently handled. The uncut boards 
should be perfectly flat in order that ruling, printing, and 
cutting may be executed with accuracy. Guillotine cutting 
is not so satisfactory as cutting singly with a hand cutter 
or rotary cutting on a card cutting machine. The usual 
sizes of index boards are 2 oh by 25-I inches and 
30 J by 25I inches, cutting to 5 by 3 inches, 6 by 4 
inches and 8 by 5 inches. 

India Proof Paper. — Thin paper made from the inner 
fibres of bamboo stems. Extremely soft and absorbent, 
it is therefore eminently suitable for taking full-bodied 
impressions in plate printing. 

Insulating" Papers. — For insulating wires for electric cables. 
See Anti-acid Manillas a?/d Cable Papers. 

Ivory Boards. — Hard, while, transparent boards, made from 
well-beaten stuff, the substance being obtained by 
bringing two or more webs of moist paper together, the 
junction being effected by rolling, no adhesive being 
employed. Ivories are obtainable in three or four 
substances, white or cream, and are used for high-class 
work, such as visiting, business, and menu cards. 
Stocked in royal boards, and also in various cut sizes. 

Japanese Copying". — Specially thin and strong papers 
made in Japan from long fibres, used for copying books. 
Japanese papers are hand-made, the fibres pulped by 
hand, the sheets made on moulds of bamboo or hair. 
The length of fibre, precluding machine making, makes 
a paper of exceptional wearing qualities, the fibres 
pulling apart, and not tearing. 

Japanese Vellum. — Thick papers made of Japanese fibres, 
very tough and durable, almost as difificult to tear as 
vellum. Finished with a good surface, suitable for 
certificates and various jobs where very tough and 
durable material is required. Stock sizes from crown 
to imperial; substance about 19, 28, 38 lb. demy per 
ream of 500 sheets ; price about 2s. 3d. per lb. 

Kraft Papers. — " Kraft " means strength, and this is the 
characteristic of these papers. Unbleached wood pulp 
is the material used, and by prolonged boiling with, 
soda under comparatively low pressure, the fibres receive 
less drastic chemical treatment than is usual in the 



124 PAPER AND ITS USES 

preparation of wood pulp. Reduction to fibrous state 
is accomplished by the edge runner, drawing the fibres 
out, thus retaining the length and strength. Kraft 
papers are smooth, light brown in colour, strong and 
flexible, and are used for wrappings where these qualities 
are required. 

Leather Boards. — Millboards made of strong materials to 
which a proportion of leather cuttings may be added. 
Used in boot and portmanteau manufacture. 

Leatherette. — Papers used for box covering and for covers 
of cheap note-books. Common papers made to colour 
of the leather of which they are imitations, either as 
coloured body papers, or with coloured surface, and 
then embossed with leather grain. 

Ledger Papers. — ^Strong, well-made writing papers, used 
for ledgers, therefore manufactured to withstand con- 
siderable handling. The best qualities are all-rag, tub- 
sized, air-dried, plate-glazed, quite opaque, with equal 
surface both sides. Usual sizes and substances : demy 
24 lb., medium 34 lb., royal 44 lb., imperial 72 lb. per 
ream of 480 sheets. 

Lined Brief. — Foolscap paper ruled with thirty-six lines 
across the width of the paper, and a vertical marginal 
line. Hand-made and high-class machine-made papers 
of this kind have the lines as watermark. 

Linen-faced Papers receive their patterns in one of three 
ways: (i) by passing between embossed and engraved 
rollers, as described under embossed papers; (2) by 
interleaving with zinc plates upon which are glued sheets 
of linen and passing through the plate-rolling machine ; 
(3) sheets of linen used between sheets of paper to be 
impressed, metal plates top and bottom, and pressure 
appHed at the plate-rolling machine. Many common 
papers are so treated, and are at present the favourites 
among fancy note-papers, silurian note being quite 
eclipsed. High-class writings and cover papers are also 
linen-faced. 

Lithographic Papers. — Papers for lithographers' general 
use, with good super-calendered surface, frequently 
soft-sized, the manufacture so arranged as to reduce the 
amount of stretch to a minimum. The best qualities 



ALPHABETICAL LIST OF PAPERS 125 

are made of rag, the next quality of esparto. With the 
advent of the off-set Utho. press, all papers have become 
possible as lithographic papers, but the description 
applies only as above. 
Loan Papers.— Superior cream wove papers, made ot the 
strongest materials, tub-sized and finished with a good 
writing surface. The materials and treatment are 
similar to those employed for bank papers, but the 
substances are heavier. Usual sizes, medmm, double 
foolscap, royal, imperial, equivalent weights 20 to 40 lb. 
medium, 480 sheets. 
London Boards.— Originally boards formed by pasting 
sheets of best hand-made drawing paper. Thick paste- 
boards are sometimes supplied as London boards. 
Long Elephants do not concern the ordinary printer. 
They are used by paper stainers, that is, wall paper 
printers. They form the ground papers for wall papers, 
are frequently of the same materials as printing papers, 
but put up in rolls of 22^ inches in width, with a length 
of 12 yards. 
Magazine Paper.— Soft printing paper with a good super- 
calendered surface in order to give equal printing 
surfaces for half-tone illustrations each side of the sheet. 
Imitation art papers also are used for illustrated 
magazines. 
Manifold (Typewriting) Banks.— The thinnest sub- 
stances of typewriting papers are so described in lighter 
weights than ordinarily used as banks. The descrip- 
tions under Banks and Typewriting Papers are applicable 
to Manifold Banks. 
Manifold Papers.— Papers used for taking copies at the 
time of making the original by writing or typewriting 
by means of carbon papers. In order to obtain a better 
impression of the original, the manifold paper, which 
is a tissue, is impregnated with oil. To enable the 
paper to take ruling and printing the paper is allowed 
to mature for some time to allow the oil to become 
distributed evenly throughout the paper. 
Manilla Papers.— Strong, tough, flexible papers made 
from manilla hemp. Manilla does not bleach easily, 
the so-called white manilla papers being always low in 



126 PAPER AND ITS USES 

colour. These papers are used for manilla labels 
(parcel tags), cartons, folders in index systems, cor- 
respondence covers, index cards, and for work where 
strength and durability are essential. The term 
" manilla " is now applied to a class of paper rather 
than to the papers made entirely or principally of 
manilla fibre. Many such papers are composed of 
unbleached chemical wood pulp, a long-fibred tough 
paper resulting, which is suitable for most of the i)ur- 
poses for which manilla papers are generally employed. 
For envelopes, however, the genuine article is not 
easily replaced. Low grade manillas may contain 
mechanical wood. Usual size and weights : double 
crown, 80, 100, 120 lb. per ream of 480 sheets. 

Map Papers are thin and tough, folding without cracking, 
usually slightly sized with animal sizing. Used for 
printing maps which are to be folded into small 
compass. 

Marbled Papers are used for covers of various books, 
as wholly covering the book, or as sides in half- and 
quarter-binding, but the principal use is for end papers 
in account books. High-class marbled papers are made* 
a sheet at a time in the following manner : a trough of 
•gum is prepared, the colours for the pattern are 
sprinkled and dropped upon the surface, patterns are 
made by combing or some other means of regularising 
the design. The body paper is let down carefully to 
the gum, the colour adheres to the paper, and the 
sheets are hung to dry. Intricate machines are 
employed to make marbled papers, depositing the 
colours for transference to the paper. There are 
many patterns of marbling, the favourites being the 
Spanish, shell, and nonpareil designs, carried out in reds, 
blues, and greens. Fancy marbled papers are sold, but 
binders are conservative in their tastes. Cheap marbled 
paj)ers are produced by lithography. 

Metallic Paper is a coated paper for special uses, such as 
note-books for indelible writing, in which case writing 
with a metal stylus or indelible pencil is easily made, 
but cannot be erased ; for indicator diagrams for various 
instruments where a light touch only can be given, but 



ALPHABETICAL LIST OF PAPERS 1 27 

the diagram is faithfully recorded. A good quality 
paper is coated with a mixture of glue and zinc oxide, 
usually applied by hand and finished in the same way as 
art papers. Cheaper metallic papers are coated with 
barium sulphate. 

Middles. — The materials for middles (of pasteboards) vary 
from waste paper to all-esparto fibre. Grey middles 
contain a large proportion of waste, mechanical wood 
and added mineral matter, while white middles are usually 
free from mechanical wood and of very fair strength. 
Made on the Fourdrinier machine, and left with machine 
finish, in order that the subsequent pasting of facing 
papers may be more thoroughly performed. In addition 
to their use for pasteboards, middles are used for 
tramway and bus tickets, frequently being tinted in the 
pulp. 

Millboards are made from various waste fibres and waste 
papers. Hand-made and the best machine-made boards 
are made from hemp and flax fibres, the commoner 
machine-made from waste papers with or without long 
fibred material. The raw materials are reduced to pulp 
(the stronger materials boiled and beaten), made into 
boards in hand moulds or on special board machines, 
pressed, dried, heavily rolled, trimmed to size. Used 
for binding, boxmaking, portmanteaux, carriage panels, 
etc. {see page 143 for sizes and substances). 

Mould-made Papers come between hand- and machine- 
made papers, having most of the characteristics of 
hand-mades. The moulding is mechanical, but the 
other operations are carried out as for hand-made papers. 
Four deckled edges will be present. 

Music Papers, used for printing sheet music, are thick 
printing papers with a moderate amount of sizing, and 
with machine finish, making an easy printing surface 
for music type, plates, or lithographic surfaces. Usual 
size: demy, 2oJ^ inches by 14I inches, 24 to 28 lb. per 
ream of 480 sheets. 

News. — Common printing papers, containing 60 to So per 
cent, of mechanical wood, a small amount of loading, 
and very little sizing. Suitable for news and other work 
of an ephemeral nature. Supplied in reels or sheets. 



128 PAPER AND ITS USES 

Non-curling- Gummed Paper. — Specially prepared 
gummed paper, the body paper being made as nearly 
free from stretch as possible, and the coating of gum, 
when dry, is broken into fine particles by drawing the 
finished paper over a steel bar. This prevents the film 
of gum from acting as a single surface, and only when 
the particles again cohere is the non-curling property 
destroyed. 

Oiled Paper. — See Manifold Paper and Stencil Paper. 

Onion Skin. — A term applied to thin, hard, highly glazed 
translucent papers, because of their resemblance to the 
thin outer skin of the onion. 

O. W. Papers are specially prepared for water colour 
drawings, the rags being reduced to pulp without chemical 
treatment, without bleaching. The papers are tested 
for chemical purity. Usual sizes of drawing papers. 

Pamphlet Papers. — Tinted papers of various substances, 
used for covers of pamphlets, and for a large variety 
of jobbing work where a paper of fair weight is required. 

Parcel Tape Paper is supplied in various widths and 
qualities, from ordinary gummed paper to kraft brown 
with gummed back ; used for fastening small parcels 
instead of string or wax. Supplied in coils for use 
with a special damping machine. 

Parchment Papers. — Properly, parchmented papers, />., 
the cellulose of which the paper is composed is altered 
in character to resemble parchment. A web of unsized 
paper is passed through a bath of strong sulphuric acid, 
which attacks and dissolves the cellulose, changing its 
fibrous form. Before the change is complete the paper 
is washed, the acid is neutralised, and the paper dried. 
The paper shrinks considerably, but is greaseproof and 
much stronger than before treatment. Vegetable parch- 
ment and pergamyn are alternative names for the same 
material. Used as an impervious packing paper for 
provisions, for tea packing, jam covers, etc. 

Pasteboards. — Cardboards formed by pasting fine papers 
to middles of inferior quality. Distinct from triplex, 
ivory, and pulp boards. 

Pastings. — Papers for pasting down"; facings for paste- 



ALPHABETICAL LIST OF PAPERS 1 29 

boards ; covering paper used by boxmakers ; white or 
coloured. 

Plate Papers. — Thick, soft printing papers, made of good 
material, soft-sized. The thicker kinds are made by 
bringing two or more webs together in the wet state 
and pressing them together, one side only being 
calendered. Used for taking impressions from engraved 
copper and steel plates, also for fine lithography. Usual 
sizes and weights are crown, demy, royal, and double 
crown, equivalent to 40 to 60 lb, demy. 

Porcelain Paper. — Thick transparent paper of the nature 
of celluloid, made of well-beaten pulp. Used for 
Christmas cards and similar work. 

Portmanteau Boards. — Tough boards used for the shapes 
or shells of portmanteaux and trunks, over which the 
leather or canvas cover is fixed. Manufactured as 
millboards, flax and hemp fibres being employed. 

Pottery Tissues. — Tissue papers specially prepared for 
printing transfers for pottery decoration. The printing 
is from copperplate, engraved rolls, or lithographic 
surface, and the pattern is transferred to the china or 
earthenware before glazing. 

Press Boards.— Thin, hard glazed boards, made of the 
best materials (see Millboards). Heavily rolled and 
friction glazed. Used for interleaving work which is 
to be hot or cold pressed. 

Pressings. — Thick coloured papers, made on the single 
cylinder machine, therefore with M.G. surface. Used 
for the covers of exercise books, for box covering, etc. 

Printings. — A large class of papers, which are usually made 
with a fair surface, machine finish. Printings are 
moderately sized, so as to absorb ink readily, and only 
a small quantity of loading is added. The materials 
used include all the fibres which will bleach well ; hand- 
made printings are tub-sized, machine-made are all engine- 
sized. Rag, rag and esparto, chemical wood and esparto, 
chemical wood, chemical and mechanical wood papers 
are the varieties obtainable, white or toned. Super- 
calendered, imitation art, and art papers can be included 
under this heading, but they are usually treated sepa- 
rately. Sizes, weights, and prices on pp. 136-37. 



I30 PAPER AND ITS USES 

Profile Papers are specially ruled papers for the use of 
engineers and surveyors ; ruled, or printed from engraved 
roll. The usual pattern has quarter-inch squares, 
divided into five horizontal sections. 

Programme Papers. — Soft papers, white or tinted, used 
for concert programmes, in order that there shall be no 
rustle when the pages are turned. The light weight 
(44 lb.) of drying royal is sometimes used as a 
programme paper. 

Pulp Boards are boards of one thickness only, made on the 
Fourdrinier machine, well sized, well rolled, in various 
substances and qualities, and in a variety of useful tints. 
Used for all purposes for which cards are employed. 

Railway Buffs. — Cheap buff papers used for forms and 
envelopes for railway business. Forms are printed on 
glazed buffs, super-calendered papers ; envelopes are 
made from M.G. buffs. 

Rocket Paper. — Thick coarse paper used for making cases 
for rockets and other fireworks. White, coloured, or 
fancy papers are pasted on the outside of the firework 
cases, and the touch paper fastened on last. 

Royal Hands. — A term used for wrapping papers made to 
royal size (24 by 19 inches). 

Safety Cheque Papers are specially prepared by printing, 
as a groundwork, a small design in ink which is fugitive 
if treated with chemicals, or if erasure is attempted. 
Other safety papers are made by adding sensitive 
chemicals to the pulp, or by impregnating the finished 
paper. These additions act as detectives, as any 
alteration or attempt to remove the original writing 
results in coloured patches which betray the work. 

Sampling Papers. — Coloured papers used for the display 
of textile and other samples, usually deep blue or deep 
yellow. Made in medium, 25 lb. per ream of 480 
sheets, and also supplied in rolls. 

Sealings. — Thin tough M.G. papers used as parcel papers. 
Being glazed on one side, sealing wax adheres readily 
to the rough side. Made in various substances and 
colours. 

Sectional Papers are papers with squares of definite 
measurement, J, ^, y^, ^V, ^V i"ch, or millimetre 



ALPHABETICAL LIST OF PAPERS 131 

ruling. The larger squares are ruled, the smaller 
are printed from engraved rolls or from electrotypes of 
engraved plates. Printed on drawing paper, also on 
thin paper for subsequent reproduction by contact with 
sensitized papers. 

Sensitized Paper. — Various papers for photographic 
printing, the paper receiving treatment after making. 
The emulsions are made and applied to the surface of 
the papers, or the paper is passed through a solution of 
sensitive salts. The developing after printing is done in 
another solution or in water, according to the prepara- 
tion of the paper. 

Shops. — White papers for packing, either glazed or unglazed ; 
white grocery papers are shops. Substances equivalent 
to demy, 40 to 48 lb.; sizes: demy, royal, 28 by 
20 inches and in rolls. 

Silurian. — Grey paper mottled with blue fibres. The pulps 
are coloured separately with fast dyes, and a small 
proportion of the darker fibres added to the grey pulp. 

Skips. — Thin packing papers for lining skips or crates in 
which various goods are packed. 

Small Hands. — Thin M.G. wrapping papers, made of the 
commonest pulps. 

Squared Papers. — Ruled or printed squares of various 
sizes on drawing, cartridge, and tracing papers. See 
Sectional Paper. 

Stencil Paper (Oiled). — Thick strong paper used for cutting 
stencils for decorators. Manilla or other papers of good 
strength and substance are soaked in linseed oil, and 
sometimes varnished on one side. 

Stencil Papers (Waxed) are used in connection with 
cyclostyle, mimeograph and similar machines. Thin, 
strong, unsized papers are coated with wax, and a stencil 
is actually made by removing the wax in various ways. 
For stencils made by handwriting the wax is removed 
by wTiting with a stylus on a file plate or a metal plate 
covered with bolting silk, or a cyclostyle pen, having a 
wheel at its tip, is used, making a series of perforations 
through the waxed paper. With the typewriter the wax 
is removed by a blow of the letter upon a tissue which 
is placed in front of the stencil paper. Wherever wax 



132 PAPER AND ITS USES 

is perforated or removed ink can be forced through the 
stencil, and the prints, although not always showing the 
broken lines of stencil work, are actually produced by 
stencil process. On account of the strength of long 
fibred papers, Japanese tissues are usually employed as 
the basis of stencil papers. 

Stereotyping Papers. — Tissues, grey blottings, and brown 
papers, as used in making stereo flong, are included in 
this category. It is possible to obtain fiong papers made 
on the paper machine, the three papers being made 
separately and brought together before the couch rolls 
are reached. 

Strawboards. — The cheapest boards obtainable for binding 
and mounting purposes. Made from straw, boiled with 
lime and reduced to pulp, manufactured into boards 
of various substances. Usual sizes, 30 by 25 inches, 
32 by 22 inches, the boards being made up into bundles 
weighing 56 lb., the weight of individual boards 
governing the number in a bundle, e.g., 8 oz. board, 
112 to bundle, 2 J lb. 22 in bundle, etc. 

Sulphite Browns. — Brown wrapping papers made from 
unbleached sulphite wood pulp producing very strong 
papers. 

Super-calendered Papers. — Term applied to printing 
papers which have received a high surface by passing 
through the super-calender rolls; but most writings, art, 
manilla, and coloured papers receive their finish in the 
same manner. 

Tea Cartridges. — Generally made from chemical wood, 
but in some cases a mixture of rag and chemical wood 
is employed. Engine-sized, supplied in sheets or reels, 
substance equivalent to 14 to 34 lb. demy. 

Ticket Boards. — Pasteboards with good white or coloured 
facing papers, sometimes coated, white or coloured ; 
used by ticket writers for window tickets. 

Tips. — Binders' tips are very thin millboards. Trunk 
makers' tips are thick, tough brown papers. 

Tissues. — Fine thin papers, made of strong materials such 
as rag and hemp fibres, beaten very finely. Other 
tissues are made of chemical wood and a proportion of 
straw pulp. Papers are unsized, used for wrapping and 



ALPHABETICAL LIST OF PAPERS 1 33 

protective purposes. Usual size and weight : double 
crown 7 lb. per ream of 500 sheets. 

Tobacco Papers. — Papers used for packing small quantities 
of the cheaper tobaccos ; with good printing surface. 
Substance and sizes, 28 to 30 lb. demy. 

Toilet Papers. — Very thin M.G. papers put up in packets 
of cut pieces, or in rolls with or without perforation. 

Tracing Papers. — Thin papers specially treated with a 
coating consisting of a mixture of certain gums and 
turpentine. Other papers used for tracing are glazed 
imitation parchments. Used for tracing maps, plans, 
drawings, etc. 

Transfer Papers.— Specially coated papers for transferring 
designs to lithographic printing surfaces. Opaque or 
transparent papers are used, according to the use of the 
paper, whether it is merely as a transfer paper or also as 
a tracing paper. The coating mixture is such as will 
readily strip from the paper when put down on stone 
and the back is damped, all the ink of the transfer being 
left on the stone. 

Triplex Boards are made on a cylinder machine, three 
webs being brought together in the wet state, but rolled, 
dried, and finished as a single web. 

Tube Papers. — Soft unsized papers, made with a good 
percentage of rag, for making tubes or spools on which 
the yarn for spinning machines is wound. 

Typewriting Papers. — Strong bank papers of good appear- 
ance, unglazed, used for correspondence and other type- 
written matter. The extra superfine qualities are all- 
rag, tub-sized ; some of the lower grades, chemical wood, 
engine sized. 

Vegetable Parchment. — Another name for parchment or 
parchmented paper. See Parchment Paper. 

Vellum Papers. — (i) Name applied to writing papers with 
a good writing surface, not so smooth as super-calendered 
papers, but nearer to the surface of a well-finished 
vellum. Usually vellum woves, although laid papers 
with vellum finish are supplied. (2) Thick, strong, 
fine papers, used for engravings. See Japanese Vellum . 

Waterproof Papers for packing purposes are made by 
coating strong wrappings with tar or bitumen, and rolling 



134 PAPER AND ITS USES 

scrim on to the surface to prevent the coating coming in 
contact with the contents of the package. A coating 
between two sheets of thin wrapping paper is another 
method of waterproofing. Used for protecting goods 
from the influence of moisture. Roofing paper is a 
variety of waterproof paper prepared by coating strong 
papers with tar. 

Waxed Paper. — Thin paper passed through a bath of 
melted paraffin wax which makes it perfectly impervious 
to moisture. Used for packing goods which are liable 
to deterioration if exposed to the atmosphere. 

Whatman Boards are made by pasting sheets of "What- 
man " drawing paper together until the desired thickness 
of board is attained. Boards only faced with " What- 
man " paper are also supplied under this name. 

Wheatstone Paper. — Blue tinted paper cut to narrow 
width for use in the tape machine, the telegraphic 
messages being recorded on the paper strip. 

Willesden Paper. — Strong paper rendered impervious to 
moisture by immersion in a solution made copper in 
ammonia. The surface of the paper is thus partially 
dissolved, and the paper is washed, rolled, and dried. If 
a thick sheet is desired, thinner sheets are brought 
together while wet and consolidated by rolling. 

Wiping-off Papers. — Papers used for relief stamping 
machines, usual substance demy 20 to 30 lb. ; in widths 
2 inches, 2 J inches, 3 inches, 3^- inches, 4 inches, 5 
inches, 6 inches, 7 inches, 7I inches, 9 inches, 
10 J inches. 

Wrapping Papers are described under the heads of Bag, 
Biscuit Caps, Browns, Caps, Carbolic, Casings, Cork, 
Corrugated, Cutlery, Drapers, Fruit, Grocery, Hosiery, 
Kraft, Parchment, Rocket, Royal Hands, Sealings, Shops, 
Skips, Small Hands, Sulphite Browns, Tea Cartridges, 
Tobacco Papers. Sizes, weights, and prices on page 142. 

Writings. — Hard-sized papers of all kinds are suitable for 
writing, but an even paper of good surface is essential. 
See under Account Book, Bank-note, Banks, Bill, Cheque, 
Ledger, Lined Brief, Loan, Safety Cheque, Silurian, 
Typewriting, Vellum Papers. Sizes, weights, and prices 
on pp. 138-39. 



TABLES OF SIZES, WEIGHTS, AND 
PRICES 



Sizes of Note and Letter Papers 

Arranged AlpJmbetically 



Fancy Names. 


Size in 
Inches. 


Cut Paper Sizes. 


Size in 
Inches. 


Albert 
Czarina - 
Duchess - 
Duke 

Emperor - 
Empire - 
Princeps - 
Princess - 
Prince of Wales 
Queen 
Regina 
Viscount - 


3|x6 
4x6 
4ix6 
4| X 6f 
Sixyi 
4i X 6 J 
4i X 5I 
4i X 5I 
3 X4J 
3J X 5§ 
4| X 6| 
5 x6i 


Copy 4to - 
„ 8vo 
Demy 4 to 

„ 8vo - 

Foolscap folio - 

4to - 

Earge post „ - 

8vo - 

Medium 4to 

„ 8vo - 
Post 4to ■ 
„ 8vo - 


7|x9| 
4|- X 7i 
7i X 9I 
4ix7i 
8 X13 
6^x8 
8 X 10 
5x8 
8| X lof 
5ix8| 
7tx9 
4ix 7 


Arranged in Order of Size 


Prince of Wales 
Queen 
Albert 
Princess - 
Princeps - 
Duchess - 
Empire - 
Czarina - 
Post 8vo - 
Regina 
Duke 
Copy 8vo - 


3 X4i 
34 X 5| 
3I X 6 
4i X 5f 
4ix5| 
4ix6 
41 X 61 
42X6 
42x7 
4j X 6| 
4 j X 6J 
4Sx7i 


Demy 8vo 
Viscount - 
Emperor - 
Large post 8vo - 
Medium 8vo 
Foolscap 4to - 
Post 4to - 
Demy 4to 
Copy 4to - 
Large post 4to - 
Medium 4to 
Foolscap folio - 


4|x7i 
5 x6i- 
5ix7i 
5 x8 
5|x8| 
64x8 
7f X9 
71 X 9-8 
7| X 9-1 
8 X 10 
8|x I of 
8^ X 13 



136 



PAPER AND ITS USES 



Sizes of Printing Papers, Etc.^ With the 
Extremes of the Usual Stock Weights 







Area in Square 


Extremes of 


Name of Paper. 


Size in Inches. 


Inches. 


Stock Weights. 








Lb. per ream. 


Pott - 


15 X12-I- 


iS'jh 


5-13 


Foolscap - 


17 xi3i 


22i)h 


6-18 


Post - 


i9ix i5i 


298I 


15-25 


Music demy 


2o| X I4I 


298I 


24-28 


Crown 


20 X 15 


300 


6-20 


Copy - 


20 X 16^ 


330 


10-20 


Large post - 


21 X l6j 


346i 


10-40 


Double pott 


25 XI5 


375 


10-25 


Demy 


22^ X lyi 


393? 


10-60 


Medium 


23 xi8^ 


414 


I 8-30 


Double foolscap - 


27 X 17 


459 


10-35 


Royal - 


25 X 20 


500 


16-70 


Super-royal 


27ix20i 


563I 


20-40 


Double crown 


30 X 20 


600 


11-80 


post 


3i|x igl 


6o6i 


30-50 


Elephant - 


28 X 23 


644 


24-60 


Imperial 


30 X 22 


660 


30-60 


Double large post 


33 X2I 


693 


20-60 


Quad pott - 


30 X25 


750 


20-50 


Double demy 


35 X22i 


7«7i 


22-1 20 


,, medium - 


36 X23 


828 


30-60 


Quad foolscap - 


34 X27 


918 


20-70 


Double royal 


40 X 25 


1,000 


30-70 


globe 


38 X 28 


1,064 


60-100 


,, elephant - 


40 X 27 


1,080 


40-100 


Quad crown 


40 X30 


1,200 


20-120 


Double imperial - 


44 X 30 


1,320 


60 120 


Quad demy 


45 X35 


1.575 


40-240 


„ royal 


50 X 40 


2,000 


60-1 20 


„ globe 


56 X38 


2,128 


120-140 



^ Including coloured papers, and papers detailed on next page 



TABLES OF SIZES. WEIGHTS, AND PRICES 



137 



Extremes of Weights and Prices.^ 
Printings, Etc. 





Equivalent 








Description of Paper. 


Weights in 
Demy, 480 


Prices per lb. 


Remarks as to Number 
of Sheets, etc. 




sheets. 








Antique book paper 


Lb. 
18-40 


l|d. 


to 61d. 


Wove or laid: 516 


Art - - - 


24-50 


2|d. 


„ 4d. 


One- or two- 
sided: 480 or 516 


Bible papers (see 


... 




... 


... 


Oxford India paper) 










Chart - 


14-48 


Aid. 


to 8d. 


480 


Chromo 


13-50 


4d. 


„ 6id. 


480 : Weights given 
are those of uncoated 
papers, also sold, with- 
out weight specified, 
as "thick "and "thin " 










Collotype 


35-60 


4id. 


„ yd. 


... 


Cover - 


1856 


2id. 


„ 6d. 


516 


Etching 


... 








Greaseproof (or 


11-20 


i|d. 


to 3id. 


Double crown : 


imitation vegetable 








480 


parchment) 










Imitation art - 


22-40 


2d. 


„ 2fd. 


516 


Litho. - 


2o-6q 


2id. 


„4d. 


4S0 to 516 


M.G. poster - 


16-20 


2d. 


„ 2|d. 




News printing 


I 1-22 


I id. 


„ ifd. 


500 


Oxford India paper 


9-1 1 


yd. to IS. 2d. 


480, 504 


)) )> j> 


10-12 


3d. 


10 6d. 




(imitation) 










Plan - 


20-24 


3id. 


„ 3|d. 


480, 516 


Plate - 


20-100 


4d. 


„ lid. 


516 


Printing — 










Hand-made 


20-40 


94'd. 


„ is.6d. 


480 


Mould- made 


30-40 


6id. 


„ 8d. 


480 


Machine-made 


13-40 


iW. 


„ 6d. 


480, 516 


Super-calendered - 


15-40 


I Id. 


n 3id. 


480, 516 


Tissues - 


5-6 


3|d. 


,, lod. 


500 : Usually 
double crown 


Vegetable parch- 


11-27 


4d. 


„ 4|d. 


480 : Usually 


ment 








double crown 



^ The prices given in this section are for small quantities from stock. 
Special sizes may be liable to an extra charge for cutting. Special makings 
and large quantities are usually subject to a reduction of ^d. per lb. 



138 



PAPER AND ITS USES 



Sizes of Writing Papers, Etc.^ With the 
Extremes of the Usual Stock Weights 



Name of Paper. 


Size in Inches. 


Area in 
Sijuare Inches. 


Extremes of 
Stock Weights. 


Pott - 


15 X 12^ 


187J 


Lb. per ream. 
7-12 


Foolscap 


i6h X 13I 


2l8f 


7-22 


Pinched post 


i8|x i4f 


272I 


10-28 


Post - 


19 X 15} 


289! 


11-30 


Demy- 


20 x 15^ 


310 


20-25 


Sheet-and-a-half 
foolscap 


24|x i3i 


324J 


24 


Copy - 


20 X i6| 


330 


15-19 


Large post - 


21 X i6f 


346i 


11-28 


Double pott 


25 X15 


375 


14-40 


Medium 


22 X 17^ 


385 


13-34 


Double foolscap - 


26ix i6| 


437? 


14-40 


Royal 


24 X 19 


456 


28-44 


Super-royal 


27 xi9i 


519! 


52-54 


Double post 


30JX 19 


5792 


20-60 


„ demy 


31 X 20 


620 


40-50 


Elephant - 


28 X 23 


644 


40-60 


Imperial 


30 X 22 


660 


70-72 


Double large post 


33 X2I 


693 


20-60 


Atlas - 


34 X 26 


884 


85-100 


Double royal 


38 X24 


912 


54-88 


„ elephant - 


40 X27 


1,080 


130-140 


„ imperial - 


44 X30 


1,320 


140 



'■ Including coloured paper and papers detailed in next page. 



TABLES OF SIZES, WEIGHTS, AND PRICES I 



Extremes of Weights and Prices, 
Writings, Etc. 





Equivalent 




Description of Paper. 


Weight in 

Demy, 
480 sheets. 


Price per lb. 


Hand-made — 


Lb. 




Bank - - - . 


12 


IS. 8d. to 2S. lod. 


Ledger _ . . . 


32-44 


lod. „ IS. 9d. 


Loan - . - - 


12-25 


IS.,, 2S. 


Writing - . _ . 


20-26 


lod. ,, IS. 9d. 


Machine-made — 






Banks — tub-sized 


5-14 


5d. „ IS. 8d. 


,, engine-sized - 


5-14 


2 id. „ lod. 


Blottings - - - - 


28-140 


3d. „ 8d. 


„ interleaving - 


10-19 


2id. „ 6d. 


Bonds — tub-sized 


12-25 


5d. „ IS. 3d. 


,, engine-sized - 


12-25 


3d. „ 9d. 


Copying - - - - 


3-18 


4d. „ IS. 5d. 


Duplicating 


14-18 


2id. „ 3id. 


Ledger — tub-sized 


32-44 


4d. „ loid. 


„ engine sized 


32-44 


2jd. „ 5d. 


Typewriting 


5-14 


3d. „ IS. 8d. 


Writings — tub-sized - 


12-42 


4d. „ IS. id. 


,, engine-sized 


12-42 


2id. „ 3|d. 


Draw 


INGS 




Hand-made - - - - 


25-75 


IS. to 2S. 


Machine-made — tub-sized 


25-40 


4d. ,, lod. 


„ engine-sized - 


25-40 


2|d. „ yd. 


Cartri 


DOES 




Tub-sized - - - . 


24-60 


3|d. to joid. 


Engine-sized - 


24-60 


2id. „ 3fd. 



140 



PAPER AND ITS USES 



Sizes of Cards 

Showing ho7u to Cut Out of Royal Board 



Name. 


Size in Inches. 


Number out of 
Royal Board, 
25 in. X20 in. 


Method of 
cutting out. 








25 in. 


20 in. 








way. 


way. 


Half small - 


2| X llf 


104 


13 


8 


Third large - 


3 xij 


96 


8 


12 


Extra third - 


3 X i| 


88 


8 


II 


Town - - - - 


3 X2 


72 


8 


9 


Half large - 


3 X2: 


64 


8 


8 


Reduced small 


3^X2^ 


55 


II 


5 


Small - - - - 


3f X 2-1 


50 


10 


5 


Carte-de-visite 


AI X 2-1- 


36 


9 


4 


Large - - - - 


4^x3 


32 


8 


4 


Double small 


4f X 3:1 


25 


5 


5 


Correspondence and 


4^x3! 


25 


5 


5 


square post-card 










Post-card (official size) - 


5ix3i 


20 


4 


5 


Large court 8vo - 


4|x4 


24 


6 


4 


Intimation - 


6 X3| 


20 


4 


5 


Double large 


6 X4I 


16 


4 


4 


Cabinet 


6J X 4-J 


15 


5 


3 


Quad small - 


7ix4l 


12 


3 


4 


Quad large - 


9x6 


8 


4 


2 



Index Cards 

Showing Method of Cutting Out of Index Boards, 
2 5 -J in. X 20^ in. and 30 i in. x 25I i7t. 



Size of Index 
Card in Inches. 


Number out of 

Board, 
25^ in. X205 in. 


Method of 
cutting out. 


Number out of 

15oard, 
30J in. X 25^ in. 


Method of 
cutting out. 


5x3 
6x4 
8x5 


32 
20 
12 


25J in. 205 in. 
way. way. 

8 4 
4 5 
3 4 


50 
30 
18 


30^ in. 25i in. 
way. way. 

10 5 

5 6 

6 3 



TABLES OF SIZES, WEIGHTS, AND PRICES I41 



Extreme Prices of Boards 

Royal, 20 in. x .5 '«•. ^^^'P* '"'"" """'' "'" '"" '"" 



Description of Boards, 



Antique and pro- 
gramme 

Art, coated both 
sides 

Art, coated one side 

Bristol (royal, 22^ 
in. X 18 in.) 

Chromo, coated one 

side 

Cloth-lined and 
cloth-centred 

Ivory - 
Pasteboards - 
Post-card, white - 

„ . „ 28I m. 

X 22| in. 
Pulp "- 

Tinted and duplex 
Ticket, white one 

side 
Ticket, white both 

sides 
Ticket, tinted one 

side 
Window ticket 



Index boards, 20^ 

in. X25|in. 
Index boards, 254 

in. X 30I in. 



Substances. 



4 to 5 sheet 

5 " 1° " 
2 „ 6 „ 



Various thicknesses 
4 to 12 sheet 



2 to 7 sheet 

4 sheet 
6 to 14 sheet 



Prices per Gross. 



5s. to 
7s. 6d. „ 

IIS. „ 

9s. „ 

17s. 6d. „ 

8s. 6d. „ 
6s. 6d. „ 
5s. 6d. „ 
7s. 3d. „ 
9s. 3d. „ 



23s. 
22s. 
26s. 

lOS. 

30s. 

26s. 

30s. 
30s. 

IDS. 
13s. 

17s. 



12 



16 



20 to 52 lb. per gross 



4S. 
6s. 


9d. 
6d. 

8s. 


)5 


15s. 

I OS. 

1 6s. 


6d. 




9s. 


)? 


17s. 


6d. 


9s 


6d. 


M 


19s. 




i8s 


. 6d. 


)1 


30s. 





32 » 52 



6s. 6d. „ 30s. 6d. 
[OS. 6d. „ 30s. 6d 



142 



PAPER AND ITS USES 



Browns and Wrappings 



Name of Paper. 


Size in 
Inches. 


Area in Square 
Inches. 


Weights Equivalent 

to Demy 10 lb., 

480 .sheets. 


Small hand 


20 X 15 


300 


7i 


Lumberhand - 


22^X I7J 


363! 


10 


Kent cap 


21 X 18 


378 


9i 


Small cap 


25 X 17 


425 


II 


Bag cap - 


24 X 19J 


468 


12 


Havon cap 


26 X 21 


546 


14 


Double small hand - 


29 X 20 


580 


15 


,, crown - 


30 X 20 


600 


15 


Imperial - 


29 X 22J 


652I 


17 


Elephant 


32 X 24 


768 


19 


Double small cap - 


34 X25 


850 


22 


„ bag cap 


39 X24 


944 


24 


Quad small hand 


40 X30 


1,200 


31 


! Double imperial 


45 X 29 


1.305 


33 


,, elephant 


46 X31 


1,426 


37 


Casing - 


46 X 36 


1,656 


42 



Extremes of Weights and Prices 



Name of Paper. 



Browns - 
Drapers' caps - 

Krafts 
M.G. caps 

Sealings, M.G., un- 
glazed, and coloured 
Rope browns - 



Equivalent 

Weights in 

Demy, 480 

sheets. 



18-48 
6-10 

11-42 
7-18 

12-24 
18-54 



Prices per Cwt. 



7s. 6d. to 2IS. 
IIS. 6d. ,, 26s. 

I2S. to 19s. 
15s. „ 2IS. 

i6s 



IIS. 



25s. 

2TS. 



Usual Sizes. 



\'arinus 
Doul)le crown 



Double crown 
and quad crown 

Various 
Various 



TABLES OF SIZES, WEIGHTS, AND PRICES 



43 



Millboards 

Thicknesses and Sizes 



Description. 




Thickness. 




1 


1 


1 


1 


1 








6 
6 


7 
6 


8 
6 


8x 
5 


Sxx 
4 


10 
3 


Pott - 


- P 


No. of Dozens 
in Bundles. 

Size. 


Approximate Weight of 
Bundles in Lbs. 


28 


38 


48 


54 


58 


56 


Foolscap - 


- FC 


i8i X 14^ 


31 


42 


52 


59 


64 


61 


Crown 


- C 


20 X i6l 


3>7 


52 


63 


72 


77 


7S 


Small half royal 


SHR 


20| X 13 


30 


41 


52 


58 


62 


60 


Large , , , , 


LHR 


21 X 14 


3)3 


45 


58 


64 


70 


67 


Short 


- S 


21 X 17 


40 


55 


69 


78 


84 


82 






No. of Dozens 
in Bundles. 


6 


6 


5 


4 


3 


2 


Small half imperial 


- SHI 


22i X 15 


38 


52 


54 


63 


60 


51 


Half imperial - 


HI 


231x164 


44 


60 


63 


70 


69 


59 


Middle or small demy 


M 


22I X \U 


48 


64 


68 


74 


74 


62 


Large middle or large 


demy 
LM 


23fxi84 


50 


68 


72 


78 


78 


67 


Large or medium 


L 


24 X 19 


52 


70 


74 


80 


81 


70 


Small whole royal 


SR 


252x194 


57 


80 


81 


88 


88 


76 






No. of Dozens 
in Bundles. 


6 


6 


4 


3 


2 


2 


Large whole royal 


LR 


26| X 20| 


63 


87 


75 


7Z 


66 


84 


Extra royal 


ER 


281X21^ 


69 


95 


80 


81 


72 


93 






No. of Dozens 
in Bundles. 


6 


4 


3 


2 


2 


2 


Whole imperial - 


I 


32 X 22^ 


82 


74 


72 


63 


85 


no 



Only those sizes in general use are given. 



;t 




COvO 00 00 LOOO 

vd tNod 00 oo" ON 


M CJ lonO 

M M CO Tt 

d M ci ro 
CJ M CJ C< 


O CO lO 
O 04 NO 


On tN 
t^ On 


CvOO 

-tNO 


8 


OWN 


Ti-oo NO vo O ro 

N M VO t>. M M 

lovd ^' NO* tNocJ 

M M M M M M 


rONO lO m' 
"^ ro OMO 


Q ro ro 
M -+ 


xhxh 
CJ w 


ST 8^ 


R 


M O lO 


ro 4- lO lO ionD 


^NgS-i? 

NO tN On On 


8S 8 

o* M ci 

01 CJ CJ 


M CO 

ro ro 
C^ CI 




00 


^s ON Ov 

lO 0\ T^ 

od ON o 


K -f CO M ON CO 
-1- 0) NO t^ ONCO 
ci CO CO CO ro -f 


00 -t rf- ON 
O 00 M lO 

lO lO K tN 


88n ^ 

00 CO" On 


-too 

00 ON 

d d 

C4 CJ 


lOvO 

00 t^ 
ci CO 

CJ OJ 


^ 


M 00 (N 
\0 00 CO 

tAod CJN 


'S [^ q 2^ 5^ 2^ 

M M* ci cJ ci ro 


ro 4- lO lO 


8c2 ^ 

NO* NO IN 


00 00 


^2 




MD INOd 


In cono no 00 lo 
ds o o o d M 


rocj rooo 
Cn ro roNO 
M Cj" ro ro 

M M M M 


8^ ? 

rf rf lO 


« ro 

NO NC* 


tNod 


2 




M CO On "* N ON 

coco O M cooo 

CO 00* On ON (> On 


lovo CJ ro 
O lO tJ- t>, 

d d M* M 

M M M M 


8nS ^ 

CJ Oj' CO 


ON 00 
00 ON 

roco 


lO >o 


o 


vO ^ ro 

C^ LOCO 


cOnO 00 N tN 'i- 

ON CO lono c^ n 


00 CJ 00 
rooo u^ IN 


8^ 2 


00 NO 

IONO 


o o 

IN M 


-t LO LO 


NO C^ IN tN INOO 


00 00 ON On 


do M 


M M 


01 CO 


o 


^8^ 
4 lAi>5 


c) no c2 00 q^ ^ 

NO NO NO NO NO t>. 


■+ 01 C^ O 
>n ON lOCO 

C^ INOO CO* 


8^ S^ 

On ON On 


2 2 


rooo 

rt-OO 

M M 


00 


O rl-vO 
00 1-vO 

CO ■+ -?■ 


LO LOvd NO NO NO 


IN NO (S 
NO* IN IN tN 


00* 00 oo' 


NO ro 
CJ CO 
On On 


d d 


!>. 


CO cn4 


»o m M CO -t IN 
00 M CO CO Tf t^ 
■4- lo Lo if, to lo 


tNvO NO lO 
00 M NO 00 

iOnO* nO no 


O NO t^ 
O CO tN 
t^ tN tN 


M NO 

00 00 


00 On 


^0 


^ CO O 
CO CO LO 

M* CO ro 


NO N U") txNO LO 
M ^ LO iOnO On 

4 4- TJ- TJ- rf 4 


rooo M c^ 

O 04 CnOO 

lO LT) uo lO 


q CO NO 

NO* NO NO 


lO On 

On on 

NO NO 


nSSn 

t^ tN 


in 


00 00 H 

CO c^ o 
d «■ ci 


tNOO On M ON CI 

^NO tNOO 00 M 

CO CO CO CO CO 4" 


4 rf rf TJ- 


8^ i^ 

lO lO lO 


On ro 

t^co 

LO LO 


CONO 

no' NO 


-•^ 


O M ro 
Ch <M CO 

H pi ci 


C-N Tt- CO lO M O 

l> On O O M CO 
ci ci CO CO CO CO 


lO d M M 

ro lOOO ON 
CO ro ro ro 


8S Z 

44 4 


roNO 

NO nO 

4 4 


LO if/ 


CO 


^SK 


■§ cJ ?^^ ^^ 


M Tfvo ro 
IOnO CO On 


O »o M 

Dm ro 


tN. o 
'J-LO 


00 ON 


H H M 


a CI c» o M CJ 


C^ M C^ 01 


ro ro CO 


ro CO 


CO CO 


N 


^t^J:- 


ON tx 04 01 lo m 

ro 't lO lO iOnO 


00 NO O NO 

NO tN ON On 


82 SJ 


??.^ 


IOnO 


MM 




M M M M 


CJ 04 CJ 


OJ OJ 


OJ 01 


M 


CO vD 00 
rf LO in 


On Tt-NO NO 00 CJ 

NO tN IN tN INCO 


-i-00 u-)00 
00 CO On ON 


O lO M 
O O M 


NO tN 


^^ 


MM H MM MM 


Hd 


^^S^ 


LO tNOO 00 On M 

CO CO ro CO ro 'J- 


^^°^^ 


O ro NO 

LO U-) lO 


00 oo 

LOLO 


nS^S 




OJ ^ g 

c/: ■" "^ 


(N CO CO 
XXX 


Tj- U-) lo lO lO ro 
X X X X X X 
00 On On O O ^f 

M M M 0) CJ 04 


NO NO lOtN 

M M M M 

X X X X 

O M ioc< 
C< OJ CJ c^ 


t^OO NO 
XX X 

I?? f 


ON tN 

M M 

X X 


82^ 

X X 

lO tN 
04 04 


o 

0) 

'(n 


o,§§- 






■1 


.2 

nil 




He*o|ooH|ci 

tNOO ON 
00 M 04 
M N Ct 


t^OO On O M OJ 
W CJ CJ CO CO ro 


OnO lO lO 
ro cO ro rO 


ro -^ r^ 


Tt Tt 


..... 1 





;r 


CO 


ro lo 0\ 
m ro CO 


oo 
tN 
tN 

CO 


lO N rh 
C| PI PI 

On d pi 

CO '^ "^ 


lood d 
-^ •^ "1 


CO ID 
ID ID 


ID 

ON 

n8 


rf PI -i- ID O O 00 

CO 00 M rt O O'^ 

4 LO CO d vd M d\ 

NO vO t^OO On PI PI 


C4 


CO 


t^ 0) 00 

m Looo 


CO 


CO IN PI 
Onoo In 

ijSnO CO 

CO CO CO 


8n8^ 

M rfvd 

'^ '^ -^ 


OnO 
Tf ID 


oo 

ID 
ID 


Tl- -t- ^ >D O '^fCO 

rh CO O tN O t^co 

On d t^ cooo' M !-<■ 
IDNO VO t^OO M M 

H M 


S 


00 


ro IN O 

■T -^00 


00 

CO 


H PI O 
tN lO PI 

PI CO u^ 

CO CO CO 




it 


ON 
tN 


3-c^^^8n8^. 

•4 4 d tN d H 00* 

ID IDNO VO 00 O O 


00 

M 


00 

IT) 


CM (N (N 


CO 
00 


ON O* M 
PI CO CO 


00 Q ID 

01 6 00 
4no* t^ 

CO CO CO 


H 00 

Tj-vO 

d w* 


t^ 

ID 


-+ t^ T^ -1- o 01 CO 

VO cooo CO O -t- PI 
00* On -f d pi w In 
tT -t IDNO tN ON On 


M 


On 

ci 


Tj-00 Tj- 

CO -i- 'j- 

(N (N W 


CO 
in 

0< 


NO w vO 

M 00 H 
NO* NO 00* 

01 PI 01 


d 01 CO 

CO CO CO 


PI -1- 
o\ O 

ID t^ 

CO CO 


CO 

NO 

d 


cooo vD CO O vO VO 
PI 00 t^vo O 01 Tj- 

co cooo' CO 4 M* vd 

tJ- tJ- -^ iDnO 00 00 




"«i- 


^ 

s 


mvo 

(N P) C) 


pi 

01 


OnnO rh 
00 Tf-vO 

oi CO Tf 

PI PI PI 


S8? 


CO PI 

H pi 

CO CO 


ID 

CO 


CO OnvO CO O O vO 
00 COnO on O h no 

tNOO* pi vd vd H LO 

CO CO Tf -^ LT) t^ t^ 


M 


00 


rAoo' 00* 


od 


01 M PI 

ON d H 
H 01 01 


ID O CO 

00 q 01 

oi 4 ID 
PI PI 01 


n- ON 

ON tN 

NO t^ 

PI PI 


t^ 


PI H t^ 01 O Tt -i- 

^ ON ID PI O ONOO 

PI PI vd d 00 M -4- 
ro CO CO -i- -^no VO 


O 


0) 

;4- 


01 -t- O 

tN M Tf 

-f LO l>) 




NO NO O 

CO In NO 

NO NO* t^ 


^8? 


IDNO 

•^ H 

01 CO 
PI PI 


>D 
01 


PI CO In PI O O '^- 

T^ -t- LO q CO q 
tN t^ o* CO o* d -4- 

01 01 CO CO rr ID LO 


o\ 


ci 


U-) CI VO 

o iNoo 
ro ro ro 


tN 

H 


01 OO -i- 

tN O 00 


^85 

t^cood 


PI oo 

8g 


vO 
00 
01 

PI 


01 On 01 t^ O 01 rt- 

COvO Th M O tNVO 

01 01 w" co^ '^%- 


- 


00 




IN H CO 

M w pi 

H H H 


PI 


CO CO 4 


CO O PI 
PI O 00 

iDNO* vd 


NO PI 

t^od 


^ 
8 


01 ^00 01 O •+ CO 
vq On COOO_ q VD 01 

M H 4-no* pi d CO 

PI PI 01 PI CO Tj- Tl- 


x>» 


o 
d 


O OnOO 

odd 


PI 

q 


LO CO 01 
Tt Cn CO 

M M* 01 


CO O PI 
CO O Cn 

CO 4 4 


PI M 

t^ PI 


03 
tN 

H 


H O cOnO O vO CO 
ON PI CO '^ O IDOO 
OCJ On H cooo' ID t^ 
M H 01 01 01 coco 




NO 


0^ 

00 


ro ^ •+ 
CO M (M 

CO* ON cK 


-1- 

On 


00 O ID 

On d d 


H* pi pi 


CO CO 


PI 

ID 


M NO 00 H O 00 01 

01 rt- q M q ^ Tj- 
vo* vd 00* d 4 d oi 

W M H 01 PI CO CO 


- 


m 




MD N O 
CO^D tN 

t>. t>. IN 


tN 


00 00 O 
M cooo 

00 00*00 


PI O M 

LO ID 

On d d 

H H 


cooo 
PI ID 

M W 


o 
PI 


LO t^ 01 tN O r^ o 
CO CO LDvO* d LO t^ 

W M H H PI PI PI 


^ 






NO* 


^^9 

NO* NO tN 


nS8^ 

tNOo' CO 


00 NO 
On pi 

CO CTn 


NO 

d 


M t^ On H O PI 01 

00 ON HI -^ O COvO 

d d pi CONO d M* 

M M M H H PI PI 


CO 


O 

CO 

4 


(M t^ (N 

Tf UOVO 

4 Tt- ^ 


tN 


l-t COCO 
On q 01 
ri- XT, U-) 


t^ O CO 
IDNO* vd 


t^ 0^ 

vd NO* 


nS 
tN 


M CO 't-vO O ^- M 
M PI M O O PI PI 

00 00 On d oi IDNO 


M 


(N 


Th lOOO 

On O O 

of CO CO 


^ 


tN LO CI 

PI CO LO 

CO CO CO 


MOO 

00 O Pi 

CO 4 4- 


On CO 
^nO 

■4 4 


ID 


O ON O O O NO M 
^ ^ H tN O IH 03 

LD IDNO vD 00 d d 


M 


CO 


tN (N Tt- 


{^ 


N^S^ 


8n82 


ID 01 

01 CO 


ID 


O '^l- ID ID O 00 O 
t^ t^ O CO O O "^ 


H H M 


H 


M h^ M 


M PI 01 


PI PI 


PI 


PI 01 CO CO ^ LOID 


HCT 




Tt-\0 IN. 
Cn tN t>. 


ON 


PI rt-00 

00 00 CO 


LO O ID 

On q o 


PI NO 

H H 


t^ 
PI 


LO tN 01 00 o ^ o 

CO CO iDvO O LT) tN 

H H* H M* Ci PI PI 


Size 

in 

Inches. 


1' 

X 

rH|M 


XXX 


8 

X 

?o 


CO PI H 

01 01 01 
XXX 


t^r-i CO 

01 01 01 
XXX 

O iDnO 
CO CO CO 


X X 

•rf-00 
CO CO 


ID 

PI 

X 


« 01 CO CO CO •^% 
X X X X X X X 

'^oo:^-)p^NO 


o 


'5 
C/3 


"^ G to 
"^ < O 

f^ 5 o o 
QQQ 




V 

li CU r- O 


E 
G -3 


G 

III 


'a 
'o 

^1 




G <U j^- 

ill 


CO 


iOnOnS 


o 

n2 


Th O CO 

NO >0 NO 


O t^oo 

IDOO 01 

t^ tNOO 


':^ PI 
00 M 
00 ON 


! 


M HI M H M pi Pf 



-a 




■^ 




a; 


n 


G 




.G 


G 










rr( 




rr 


G 






t 


G 




I/) 


-^ 


S" 












a 


G 


'3 


bO 

5 










c 

V 


bfl 




^ 

8 




<u 


o 


;/i 


'5 


? 

p 


T3 


"^ 




0> 


Gl 


b/1 








-^ 




D 


u 


G 


— 


^ 


hn 


OJ 






c 






1' 




. 


lU 


t/3 


<u 


-q 


- 




-a 


PI 


JD 


o 


o 






^ 




- 


VO 


o 




b/- 




fTl 


^ 
^ 




-^ 






>^ 


c 


a 


a 




<u 


o 


3 


^0 

5U 


J3 


<u 


s 




11 


g" 








^^ 


c 


^ 


H 














XJ 






b/1 


G 




a; 


^ o 




5i 




s. 


o 




r-i 




>-. 










o 

0) 




Si 

s 


U.r1 


CO 






-^ 


II 


(1) 


G 


s 


o 


G 


o 


o 




c:1 


"i3 


CO 


^ 




G 


UN 


•.-' 




F= 


II 


1) 


_o 


G 

"o 


t^ G 


G 

a 


^ II 

;3 '- 


H 


^ 0) 

85 
q ii 


LO 

in 1) 




r! 


00 XJ 


(U 




II 


n* 


ci 


0£ 


-^ 






n 




m 


_• 


vu 


II 










CO 






>, 


DhPI 




X! 


oS NO 




a 


II 




u 


rrt 






'^^>^0 




NO 


o 


.^ 


"? 


„■ 


•h 


.c 




VO 


<u 


b/j 


I, , 


II 


CU'P 


o 


G 


? 


I/) 






1-) 










b/ 


00 

oo 


00 


l-J 


1^ 


CC' 
LO 


II 


cr 



cr . NO - 

<u co^ -^r 

m .-.re 

I Lf s. 

-5 S G S 






lO 



PROBLEMS IN COST, WEIGHT, AND 
QUANTITIES OF PAPER 

To find the Cost of Paper. — The methods of calculation 
of cost will depend upon the number of sheets to the ream. 
If packed in 480's, and the quantity is stated in reams, quires, 
and sheets, the cost is obtained very easily. Paper at £^\ 
per ream is is. per quire, Jd. per sheet. Take 110 reams, 
17 quires, 12 sheets, at 7s. 6d. per ream. At £^\ per ream 
this equals ^iio. 17s. 6d., and at 7s. 6d. this comes to f of 
that sum=:^4i. 6s. 7d. ; or reckoned at iioj reams at 
7s. 6d,, the same figures are obtained. When reams contain- 
ing a larger number of sheets are concerned, the calculation is 
made on the number of reams plus the fraction of the ream. 

Prices and Weights of Boards. — To obtain the 
price per 480 when the price per gross is given, multiply 
the figure by ^^ . Per 500 is taken as 34 times the price 
per gross. When the price is given per 480, the price per 
gross is y,7 of that amount. If the price is given as per 
500, the gross will cost t of that amount. Weights are 
calculated on the same basis. 

To Calculate the Weight of a Paper from the Size 
and Weight of another Paper. — A table of equivalent 
weights papers of regular sizes based on demy of certain weights 
is given on pages 144-45. To find the weight of other sizes, 
multiply the weight of the ream in pounds by the area of the 
new size in inches, and divide by the area of the size, the 
weight of which is known. 

Example. — The weight of large post is required 
equivalent to double foolscap 30 lb. 

-50 X 21 X 16^ , I ,, , 

"^ ^ = 2244= 23 lb. lar^e post. 

17 X 27 

If the table of equivalent weights be examined, it will be 
seen that the area of large post is 346^ square inches, and 

146 



PROBLEMS IN COST, WEIGHT, ETC., OF PAPER I47 

that of double foolscap 459 square inches. For approximate 
purposes these may be taken as 350 and 460, and this shows 
large post to be practically three-quarters of the area of 
double foolscap. Other instances may be cited : demy 
393 1 square inches, if taken as 400, renders royal as one-fourth 
extra, and double crown one-half above the demy weights. 
These figures are useful for quick calculation, but the first 
method is more exact and should be generally adopted. 

To find the Number of Sheets which a Reel of 
Paper will Produce. — Weigh the reel and deduct the weight 
of the core or centre. Cut a piece the full size of the sheet, 
but if a trim is allowed, the sheet cut should be untrimmed 
size. Weigh the sheet on the sheet scale, read the w^eight in 
500's, and divide the weight given into the net weight of the 
reel, and multiply the result by 500, this giving the number 
of sheets which will be produced. 

Example. — Reel is 50 inches wide, weighs 740 lb. ; the 
centre is 10 lb. in weight; to be cut to sheet 25 by 20 inches 
Sheet 25 by 20 inches = 25 lb. per 500. 

740- 10 = 730 lb.-^25 = ^^ X 500= 14,600 sheets. 

Alternatively a square may be cut by the demy template, 
weighed on the demy scale, the weight of the sheet equivalent 
to the demy weight calculated or obtained from table, and 
the number of sheets obtained as in above example. 

Example. — Reel is 48 inches wide, weighs 640 lb. with 

4 lb. centre ; to be cut to 24 by 36 inches ; demy= 21 lb. per 

500 sheets. 

^ 6^6x1500x17^x224 . , , 

640-4= -^ ^ '^ ^ = 6,901 sheets. 

24 X 36 X 21 

To find the Number of Copies of a Book that may- 
be Obtained from a Given Quantity of Paper. — A 

publisher sends in twenty-seven perfect reams of quad crown for 
a crown octavo work of 216 pages. How many copies will 
be produced? A sheet of crown octavo = 16 pages, therefore 
quad crown = 64 pages. 

2t6 27 X c:oo X 64 

27 X 500 -h — ^ - — = 4,000 copies. 

64 216 



148 



PAPER AND ITS USES 



To find the Quantity of Paper required for an 

Edition of a Book of a Given Size. — An edition of a book 

of 400 pages demy octavo, 6,500 pages, is required. What 

quantity of double demy should be issued in perfect reams ? 

A sheet of double demy will contain 32 pages; a ream will 

produce 500 copies, 

-pu f 6, :;oox4oo ^ -, 

Ihereiore, -^-^ ~ — = 162^ reams. 

32 X 500 

Or, 400-^32 = 12J sheets per copy ; 6,500= 13 reams ; 
13 X 12 J = 1 62 J reams. 

To Calculate the Weight of a Ream Containing a 
Larger or Smaller Number of Sheets.— Multiply the 
weight by the factor given below, or else add or subtract the 
fraction representing the difference in the number of sheets. 



Table of Factors 



Table of Factors. 


Table of Fractions.^ 


To convert to 


480 


500 


504 


516 


480 


500 


504 


516 


480 


1.042 


1.05 


I-075 




+ ^h 


+ ^V 


+ 1^ 


500 


.95 




1. 01 


1.032 


-T.V 




+li^ 


+ Tto 


504 


.95 


.992 




1.022 


-Vt 


~T^1T 




+ lV 


516 


•93 


.969 


.977 




-^ 


-T^^ 


-T^. 





Add or subtract the fraction of the weight of the ream as shown. 



PAPER TRADE CUSTOMS 149 

PAPER TRADE CUSTOMS 

The following are the recognised customs of the trade relative 
to papermaking, provided that no agreement to the contrary has 
been made at the time of the order between the vendor and 
the purchaser. 

SALE 

Paper is sold either at a price per ream, based upon its 
nominal weight, or at the actual weight by the pound, packed 
in reams or in reels. Wrapping paper is sold at scale weight. 

MACHINE-MADE PAPERS 

1. A ream of paper, unless otherwise specified, contains 

480 sheets. 

2. A "perfect" ream for printing papers contains 516 

sheets. 

3. A ream of envelope paper contains 504 sheets. 

4. A ream of news contains 500 sheets. 

5. An "insides" ream contains 480 sheets all "insides," 
i.e., 20 good or inside quires of 24 sheets. 

6. A " mill " ream contains 480 sheets, and consists of 
18 "good" or "inside" quires of 24 sheets each, and 2 
" outsides" quires of 24 sheets each. 

7. Reams are classed as "good," "retree," and "out- 
sides." The price of "retree" is 10 per cent., and of 
"outsides" 20 per cent, lower than that of "good." 

HAND-MADE PAPERS 

8. A "mill" ream, "good" or "retree," contains 472 
sheets, and consists of 18 "insides " quires of 24 sheets each, 
and two "outsides" quires of 20 sheets each. 

9. An "insides" ream, "good "or "retree," contains 480 
sheets, and consists of 20 "insides" quires of 24 sheets each. 

In all cases the " outsides " quires are placed one at the 
top and one at the bottom of the ream. 

VARIATIONS IN WEIGHT^ 

I. In printings, writings, etc., the average variation in 
substance of any ream must not exceed 4 per cent., either 
above or below the ordered substance. 

In greys, caps, manillas, browns, coloured printings, etc., 
1 Not applicable to hand-made paper. 



ISO PAPER AND ITS USES 

the average variation in substance of any ream must not ex- 
ceed 5 per cent, either above or below the ordered substance. 

2. In news, printings, writings, etc., the average variation 
in substance of any reel must not exceed 5 per cent, above 
or below the ordered substance. 

In the case of paper on reels, claims for short length 
can only be made when the shortage exceeds 5 per cent., and 
then only for the amount of any excess over and above such 5 
per cent., unless special arrangements to the contrary are made. 

In greys, caps, manillas, browns, coloured printings, etc., 
the average variation in substance of any reel must not 
exceed 6 per cent, above or below the ordered substance. 

3. But for all papers of substance under 6 lb. demy 
(17 J by 22 J inches), and above 50 lb. demy, the actual 
weight may vary 8 per cent, either over or under. 

4. Payment for paper in reels, according to the printed 
or manufactured results, cannot be claimed by the purchaser. 

VARIATIONS IN MEASUREMENTS ^ 

T. The variation in measurement of paper in reams must 
not exceed 1 per cent., either above or below the ordered 
measurement, but in no case shall the margin of variation 
exceed -^ inch or be less than ^ inch. 

2. The width of paper in reels must not vary more than 
J per cent. 

SPECIAL MAKINGS 

1. For makings of special weight, size, tint, watermark, etc., 
not having a regular sale in the market, the buyer is to take 
at full price any excess not exceeding 10 per cent, above the 
quantity ordered, including a reasonable proportion of " retree." 

2. Where a maximum quantity is stipulated for when 
ordering, the order is considered duly executed if it amounts 
to not less than 90 per cent, of the stipulated quantity. 

MATERIALS 

I. Unless otherwise expressly stipulated in the order, the 
maker is free as to what material he shall use. 

WRAPPING UP 

The weight of necessary wrappers and string for reams and 
reels is to be included in the chargeable weight of the paper. 
^ Not applicable to hand-made paper. 



PAPER TRADE CUSTOMS 151 

MODE OF PAYiMENT 

The customary terms of payment are : — A monthly 
account to run from the 20th of one month to the 19th of 
the next, payable during the succeeding month ; thus goods 
invoiced from the 20th January to the 19th February shall 
be payable during March. 

RETURNED EMPTIES 

Carriage on returned empty frames, centres, boards, boxes, 
packing-cases, etc., is payable by the customer returning the 
same, unless special arrangements to the contrary are made. 

EXCESS CARRIAGE 

The excess carriage charged by the railway companies on 
smalls shall be paid by the purchaser. 

MARKING REAMS 

The actual weight ordered shall be marked on each ream 
at the mill. 

LIMIT OF TIME 

The limit of time for a mill to hold stock to order of the 
purchaser shall be six months from the date when the paper 
is advised as ready for delivery, such date not being earlier 
than that specified on the order, after which it shall be 
invoiced, and shall therefrom become the property of the 
purchaser, and remain at his sole risk and expense, and shall 
be paid for within thirty days of invoice. 

DANDIES AND MOULDS 

In all cases the purchaser shall pay for the dandy or 
moulds forthwith, but the maker shall allow an extra 
2 1 per cent, off the invoice for each delivery of paper made 
from such dandy until the cost of same is extinguished, after 
which it shall become the property of the maker. If after 
an interval of three years no further order has been received, 
the maker shall be at liberty to take out the watermark and 
make use of the frame as his property after giving thirty days' 
notice, provided nevertheless that the purchaser shall have 
the right of retaining the dandy or moulds by refunding one- 
half of the extra discount of 2 J percent, allowed in respect 
of the cost. 



CITY AND GUILDS OF LONDON INSTITUTE 
EXAMINATIONS 

TYPOGRAPHY AND LITHOGRAPHY 

Extracts from Syllabus as regards Paper 

TYPOGRAPHY 

Press and Machine. — Grade I 

Sizes, and subdivisions of papers and cards; number of 

sheets in quires and reams; easy questions on the various 

grades of paper. 

Composing. — Grade H 
Hand- and machine-made ; quahties and weights, equivalent 
weights; sizes and subdivisions of printings, writings, and 
account book papers ; sizes and subdivisions of cards. 

Press and Machine. — Grade H 
Various sizes, weights, and subdivisions; differences between 
machine- and hand-made ; coated and super-calendered ; effect 
of heat and damp upon ; avoidance of waste from dirt and 
careless handling. 

Final 

Papers and Boards. — The manufacture of paper. The 
paper-making machine ; fibre-yielding material ; warehouse 
tests for the various celluloses ; soft-, half-, tub-, and engine- 
sizing ; china clay, its uses and how to determine proportion. 

Various classes of paper (hand-made, mould-made, and 
machine-made). Printings, coated papers, writings, banks and 
loans, plate, drawings, account books, cover papers, blottings, 
vegetable parchments, imitation parchments, manillas, "safety" 
cheque papers, wrapping papers, gummed papers. 

Judging Papers. — How to judge the quaHty of various classes 
of papers and their suitability for the purposes to which they 



CITY AND GUILDS OF LONDON EXAMINATIONS I 53 

are to be put. Bulk, handling, and "look-through," strength, 
tear (straight and across), length of fibre. British and foreign 
makes and how to detect. The right and wrong sides. 

Defects in PAPER.-Cockling, and creasmg, stretching, 
lifting, fluffing, the mill edge, spots, air-bubbles, foreign 
substances, electricity in paper. 

Technical terms used by papermakers and merchants.— 
Insides, outsides, retree, job, mill job, overmake, etc. 

Sizes and Weights of PAPER.-Standard sizes of the 
various classes. Standard weights. Equivalent weights of 
standard and odd sizes, and of reams consisting of 480, 504, 
or 516 sheets. Reams to the reel. 
Watermarks and mill numbers. 

Stocking of Paper.— What classes to select for stocking. 
Racks, for stock. The care of stock, samples, oddments, and 
useful offcuts. Tying up and marking reams. The effect of 
li-ht, temperature, chemical fumes, damp and dust on the 
various classes of paper. Stock-keeping systems and books. 

Boards.— Bristol, paste, pulp, wood-pulp, art and tinted, 
millboards and strawboards. Standard sizes; subdivisions 
and standard thicknesses. Boards to the cwt. 

Market prices and terms for stock papers and makings. 

LITHOGRAPHY 
Grade I 
Machine-made uncoated printing papers : their nature and 
qualities ; dimensions of the more common printing papers, 
tinted and white, wove and laid, sized and unsized. 

Grade II 
Hand- and machine-made ; tinted ; enamels (single and 
duplex coated) ; plain and glazed cards, their nature, qualities, 
and sizes. Paper creasing and its remedies. 

Final 
Tests for printing properties ; papers suitable for particular 
classes of work. 



BOOKS AND PERIODICALS 

"C.B.S. Standard Units and Standard Paper Tests," Cross, 

Bevan, Beadle, and Sindall. E. & F. N. Spon, 

Ltd. 2s. 6d. net. 
"Chapters on Paper Making," Vols. I.-V., Beadle. Crosby 

Lockwood & Son. 5s. net each volume. 
" Dyeing of Paper Pulp," Erfurt. Scott, Greenwood, (!t 

Son. 15s. net. 
" Manufacture of Paper," Sindall. Constable & Co., Ltd. 6s. net. 
" Outlines of Stationery Testing," Bromley. C. Griffin & 

Co., Ltd. 2S. 6d. net. 
" Paper Makers' Pocket Book," Beveridge. J.Gibson. 12s. 6d. 
" Paper Making," Clapperton. Crosby Lockwood & Son. 5s. net. 
" Paper Making," Watt. Crosby Lockwood & Son. 7s. 6d. 
"Paper Mill Chemist," Stevens. Scott, Greenwood, & Son. 

7s. 6d. net. 
"Paper Technology," Sindall. C. Gritfin & Co., Ltd. 12s. 6d.net. 
"Text-Book of ]\aper Making," Cross, Bevan, and Briggs. 

E. & F. N. Spon, Ltd. 12s. 6d. net. 
"Treatise on Paper Making," Hofmann. Sampson Low, 

Marston, & Co., Ltd. 6 parts, 5s. net each. 
"Treatment of Paper for Special Purposes," Andes. Scott, 

Greenwood, & Son. 6s. net. 
"What a Stationer ought to know about Paper," Maddox. 

J. Whitaker & Sons, Ltd. is. net. 
" Wood Pulp," Cross, Bevan, and Sindall. Constable & Co., 

Ltd. 6s. net. 



British Empire Paper, Stationery and Printing T?'ades Journal. 

Monthly, 6d. 
Paper Maker and British Paper Trades Journal. Monthly, is. 
Paper Makers' Mo7ithly JourJial. Monthly, 6d. 
Paper Trades Review. Weekly, 6d. 
Paper Making. Monthly, 6d. 



INDEX 



Note. — 7y/<'; Alphabetical List of Papers, pages 113-34. i^ >^ot included 
in the Index. 



Absorbent papers, testing, 104 
Accounts, stock paper, 93 
Advantages of scientific conditions 

in machine rooms, 69 
Air-dried browns, 56 
Alphabetical list of papers, 113-34 
Alum in paper, 6 
Amount of loading permissible in 

paper, 20, 64 
Analysis of mixture of fibres, no 
Aniline sulphate solution, 106 
Animal sizing, 6 
Apparatus for paper testing, 112 
Art paper, 47 

decomposition of glue in, 76 

durability of, 65 

manufacture of, 48 

picking or lifting of, 73 

testing, 73 

Ashcroft paper-testing machine, lOO 
Ash of papers, 105 

Bamboo, 3 

— fibres, microscopical examination 

of, no 

— testing for, 107 
Bank notes, 38, 39 

— paper, 39 
Beating engine, 9 

— rags, II 

— wood pulp, 13 
Bleaching powder, 1 1 

— pulp, I I 

Blotting papers, manufacture of, 51 

enamelled, 52 

Board machine, 36 
Boards, box, 50 

— coated, 50 

— table of prices of, 141 
Boards, to find prices and weights, 

146 



Boiling rags, 9 

Bond papers, 39 

Books and periodicals, 154 

— mixture of shades of papers in, 

81 

— quantity of paper required for, 

148 
Bound books, direction of paper 

for, 78 
Box boards, 50 

manufacture of, 36 

Bristol boards, manufacture of, 36 

Broke, 29 

Browns, air-dried, 56 

— • and wrappings, table of sizes, 

weights, and prices, 142 

— cylinder-dried, 56 
Bursting strain, 100 

Cardboards, 59 

— cockling of, 72 

— table of prices of, 141 

Card index boards, characteristics 

of, 58 
Cards, table of sizes and methods 

of cutting, 140 

— index, sizes of, and methods of 

cutting, 140 
Care of paper, 90 
Cartridge papers, 41 
table of weights and prices, 

139 
Carriage panels, manufacture of, 36 
Carrington paper-testing machine, 

99 

Cellulose, 2 

— in fibres, 61 

Change of colour of papers, 77 
Characteristics of card index boards, 

58 
ledger papers, 39 

155 



156 



NDEX 



Characteristics of printing papers, 

43 
Chemical wood, 3, 13 
microscopical examination of, 

no 
Cheque papers, 40 
China clay, 6 

as loading, 20 

Choosing paper to suit job, 80 
Chromo boards, 59 

— papers, 49 

City and Guilds Syllabus for typo- 
graphy and lithography, 152-53 
Classification of fibres, 64 
Cloth-lined cards, coloured, 50 
Coated boards, 50 

— papers, 48 

ink for, 75 

Cockling of cardboards, 72 
Coloured cloth-lined cards, 50 

— papers, difference in shade of 

two sides, 85 

— papers for pasting, 104 

— printings, 45 

Colouring matter in papers, 7, 103 
fastness to light of, 103 

— pulp, 20 
Common printings, 44 
Comparison between hand-, mould-, 

and machine-made papers, 87 

— of strength by tearing, 88 
Condition of knives of cutting- 
machines, 78 

Constituents of paper, 6 
Copying papers, 53 

testing, T05 

Cost of paper, to find, 146 
Cotton, cellulose in, 2 

— fibres, 4, 6,1 

— microscopical examination of, 

108 
Couching, 16 
Couch rolls, 23 
Cover papers, 53 

embossed, 54 

pamphlet, 54 

Crayon papers, 42 

Cutting machine, condition of 

knives, 78 

— watermarked papers, 79 
Cutting machine webs into sheets, 

Cylinder-dried browns, 56 
Cylinder papermaking machine, 25 



Dandy rolls, 22 

effect of, 23 

laid, 23 

spiral laid, 23 

wove, 23 

Deckle, 15 

— straps, 21 

Decomposition of gelatine sizing, 

— of glue in art paper, 76 
Defects in paper, 66 
Deterioration of mechanical wood 

papers, 65 

— of paper, 63 

Difference in shade of two sides of 

coloured papers, 85 
Direction of paper for bound books, 

78 
Discoloration of paper, 63 
Distinguishing between hand- and 

machine-made papers, 85, 86 

— mould-made papers, 87 
Drawing papers, 41 

— — weights and prices of, 139 
Drying cylinders, 23 

— sized paper, 29 

Duplex boards, manufacture of, 35 
Duplicating paper, 52 

testing, 105 

Durability of art paper, 65 

— of featherweight paper, 45, 64 

Eddy paper-testing machines, 100 
Edge runner or kollergang, 13 
Elasticity of paper, 97 
Electricity in paper, 74 
Embossed cover papers, 54 
Enamelled papers, 49 
Engine-sized papers, 21, 39, 41 
Envelope papers, 32 
Equivalent weights of various 

papers, 144-45 
Esparto, 3 

— cellulose in, 2 

— fibres, 5, 62 

microscopical examination of, 

no 

— testing for, 107 

— treatment of, 1 1 
Exercise book covers, 55 
Expansion of paper, 68 

Extracts from City and Guilds 
Syllabus for typography and 
lithography, 152-53 



INDEX 



157 



Fastness to light of colouring 

matters, 103 
Featherweight paper, 45, 64, 81 

durability of, 45, 64 

Fibre composition, examination of, 

106 
Fibres, bamboo, no 

— cellulose in, 61 

— classification of, 64 

— cotton, 4, 61, 108 

— esparto, 5, 62, no 

— flax, 62 

— hemp, 4, 109 

— jute, 5, 109 

— linen, 4, 109 

— manilla, 5, 109 

— microscopical examination of, 

107 

— straw, 5, 109 

— wood, 5, 62, no 
Filling, 6 

Filter papers, manufacture of, 51 

Finish, machine, 25 

Finish of paper, testing, loi 

Finishing paper, 28 

Flax fibres, 62 

Flint glazed papers, 32, 49 

Fluff from papers, 75 

Folding machine, 10 1 

tests, loi 

Fourdrinier machine, iS 
Friction glazing, 31 

Gummed papers, 55 
non-curling, 55 

Halfstuff, 10, 12 

Hand- and machine-made papers, 
distinguishing between, 85, 86 

mould-made papers, distin- 
guishing between, 87 

and machine-made papers, 

comparison between, 87 

Hand-made papers, 14 

— printings, 44 
Hemp fibres, 4, 109 

— microscopical examination of, 

109 
Hollander, 9 

Imitation art paper, 47 

loading in, 20 

Impression paper, 52 

Index cards, characteristics of, 58 



Index cards, table of sizes and 
methods of cutting, 140 

prices, 141 

Ink for coated papers, 75 

Insides, 30, 33 

Iodine solution, 108 

Ivory boards, manufacture of, 35 

Judging paper, 80 
Jute fibres, 5, 109 
— microscopical examination of, 
109 

Kraft papers, 56 

_ — weights and prices, 142 

Laid dandy roll, 23 
Leather boards, manufacture of, 36 
Ledger papers, characteristics of, 39 
Leunig paper-testing machine, 98 
Letterpress printers, stock papers 

for, 91 
Linen fibres, 4, 109 
microscopical examination of, 

109 
Lithographers, stock papers for, 93 
Litho. papers, 46, 82 

stretching of, 46, 71 

Loading, 6 

— amount of, permissible in print- 

ings, 26, 64 

writings, 20, 64 

present in imitation art papers, 

20 

— china clay as, 20 

— testing for, 105 
Loan papers, 39 
Loft drying, 17 

Loss of strength in papers, 64 

Machine finish (M.F.), 25, 30 

— made papers, 18 

writing papers, 30 

tub sizing, 30 

Manilla fibres, 5, 109 

— microscopical examination of, 106 
Manufacture of art paper, 48 

— of blotting paper, 51 

— of Bristol boards, 36 

— of duplex boards, 35 

— of filter paper, 51 

— of ivory boards, 35 

— of millboards, 36 

— of pasteboards, 36 



158 



INDEX 



Manufacture of pulp boards, 35 

— of triplex boards, 35 

— of wrapping papers, 56 
Marshall's paper-testing machine, 98 
Maturing paper, 67, 69 
Mechanical wood pulp, 4, 6, 13, 63, 

no 

papers, deterioration of, C5 

testing for, 106 

microscopical examination of, 

no 
Methods of transporting paper, 89 
M.G. papers, 25 

— poster papers, 47 
Micrometer for testing thickness, 

97 

Microscope, 107 

Microscopical analysis of mixture of 
fibres, no 

— examination of fibres, 107 

preparation of fibres for, 107 

Middles, 36 

Mill ream, 33 

— numbers, 25 
Millboards, manufacture of, 36 

— table of sizes and thicknesses, 

143 
Mineral matter, 6 

testing for, 105 

Mitscherlich pulp, 62 

Mixture of shades of paper in books, 

81 
Moisture in paper, 67 
Mould-made paper, 17 

— printings, 44 

Moulds for hand-made paper, 15 
Mullen paper-testing machine, 100 
Multi-copying paper, 52 

News, ream of, 34 
Non-curling gummed paper, 55 
Note and letter papers, table of 

sizes of, 135 
Number of copies from given 

quantity of paper, 147 

Offcuts, 95 

Opacity of paper, testing, 100 

Outsides, 33 

Oxford India paper, 44 

Pamphlet cover papers, 54 
Paper, absorbent, 104 



Paper, amount of loading present 
in, 20 

— bamboo in, 107, no 

— bursting strain of, 100 

— care of, 90 

— chemical wood in, no 

— cockling of, 72 

— coloured, for pasting, 104 

— colouring matter in, 7, 103 

— constituents of, 61 

— copying, 105 

— curing machine, 70 

— cotton in, 108 

— defects in, 66 

— deterioration of, 63 

— discoloration of, 63 

— duplicating, 105 

— elasticity of, 97 

— electricity in, 74 

— envelope, 32 

— esparto in, 107, no 

— expansion of, 68 

— featherweight, 64, Si 

— finish of, 1 01 

— flint glazed, 31 

— fluff from, 75 

— for colour work, 82 

— for register work, 72 

— for programmes, 81 

— for varnished work, 82 

— gummed, 55 

— hand-made, 14 

— hemp in, 109 

— jute in, 109 

— linen in, 109 

— machine-made, 18 

— maturing, 67, 69 

— manilla in, 109 

— mechanical wood in, 65, 105, 

no 

— M.G.,25 

— microscopical examination of, 

107 

— moisture in, 67 

— mould-made, 17 

— opacity of, 1 00 

— poster, 82 

— proof, 83 

— printing qualities of, n I 

— quantity required for books, 148 

— set-off, 83 

— sizes, weights, and prices, 135 

— sorting, 33 

— squareness of, 97 



INDEX. 



159 



Paper, starch in, 103 

— straw in, 107 

— stretching of, 7 1 

— surface of, loi 

— tensile strength of, 97 

— testing, 96 

machines, 98, 99, 100 

— thickness of, 97 

— to calculate weight of, 146 

— to find cost of, 146 

— transporting, 89 

— varnishable, 83 

— wavy edges to, 72 
Papermaking — 

— hand-made, 15 

— machine, wet end of, 21 

— materials for, I 

— rags for, 3 
Paper testing, 96 

apparatus for, 112 

machine, Ashcroft, 100 

Carrington, 99 

Eddy, 100 

Leunig, 98 

Marshall's, 98 

Mullen, 100 

Rehse, 100 

Southworth, 100 

Woolley, 100 

Paper trade customs, 149-51 
Papers, alphabetical list of, 113-34 
Papyrus, I 

Pasteboards, manufacture of, 36 
Pastings, 36 
Perfect ream, 34 
Phloroglucine solution, 106 
Picking or lifting of art papers, 73 
Plate papers, 47 

— rolling, 29 

Portmanteau boards, manufacture of, 

Position and condition of stock 
room, 89 

Poster papers, 47, 82 

M.G.,47 

Preparation of fibres for microscopi- 
cal examination, 107 

Presse-pate machine, 12 

Pressings, 55 

Prices and weights of boards, to find, 
146 

— of boards, 141 

— of brown and wrapping papers, 

142 



Prices of printing papers, 137 

— of writing papers, 139 
Printing papers, 43 

coloured, 45 

common, 44 

loading in, 20 

permissible in, 64 

qualities, 1 1 1 

table of sizes and weights, 136 

weights and prices, 137 

Programme papers, 81 
Proofs, paper for, 83 
Pulp boards, 58 
manufacture of, 35 

Quantity of paper required for 
books, 148 

Rags, beating, 1 1 

— boiling, 9 

— for papermaking, 3, 8 

— sorting, 8 

— washing, 9, 10 

Raw materials for papermaking, I 

reduction to pulp, 8 

Ream, mill, 33 

— news, 34 

— perfect, 34 

— stationers', 34 

— wrappers, 57 
Reed pulp, 3 

Register work, paper for, 72 
Rehse paper-testing machine, loo 
Remedy for faults in art papers, 

73 
Resistance to wear, testing for, 10 1 
Retree, 29, 33 
Right side of paper, 79, 83 
Rolling printed work, 76 
Ruling on various papers, 76 

Sample portfolio, 95 

Set-off sheets, 83 

Sheets in a reel, to calculate, 147 

Single cylinder papermaking 

machine, 25 
Size of sheets, checking, 97 
Sizing, animal, 6 

— engine, 21 

testing for, 102 

— tub, 6, 28 

testing for, 102 

— vegetable, 6, 21 

i Slate boards, manufacture of, 36 



i6o 



INDEX 



Society of Arts and deterioration of 

paper, 63 
Soda pulp, 3 
Sorting paper, 29 

— rags, S 

Southworth paper-testing machine, 

100 
Spiral laid dandy roll, 23 
Squareness, testing for, 97 
Starch, testing for, 103 
Stationers' ream, 34 
Stock accounts, 93 

— papers for letterpress printers, 

91 

lithographers, 93 

Stock room, position and condition 

of, 89 
Stocktaking, 94 
Straw, 3, 5, 109 

— fibres, 5, 109 

— microscopical examination of, 109 

— testing for, 107 

Stretch in litho. paper, 46, 71 

Stretching of paper, 71 

Suction boxes, 23 

Sulphate pulp, 4 

Sulphite pulp, 4 

Surface-coloured enamel papers, 49 

Surface of papers, testing, loi 

Super-calendered (S.C.) papers, 30 

Super-calendering, 25 

"Swift" paper curing machine, 70 

Table of equivalent weights, 144-45 

— of prices of boards, 141 

— of sizes and thicknesses of 

millboards, 143 

of cards, 140 

■ —of index cards, 140 

— of note and letter papers, 135 

— of sizes, weights, and prices of 

browns and wrappings, 142 

printings, 136 

writings, 138 

Tearing as a method of comparing 

strength, 88 
Tensile strength, 97 
Testing absorbent paper, 104 

— art paper, 73 

■ — bursting strain, 100 

— coloured papers for pasting, 104 

— copying paper, 105 

— duplicating paper, 105 

— elasticity, 97 



Testing fastness of colours, 103 

— for bamboo in paper, 107, no 

chemical wood, 1 10 

cotton in paper, 108 

esparto in paper, 107, no 

hemp in paper, 109 

jute in paper, 109 

linen in paper, 109 

loading, 105 

manilla in paper, 109 

— — mechanical wood, 106, no 
mineral matter, 105 

— — starch, 103 

— • — straw in paper, 107, 109 
various faults, in 

— opacity, 100 

— printing qualities, 1 1 1 

— resistance to wear, loi 

— sizing of papers, 102 

— squareness, 97 

— surface, loi 

— thickness of papers, 97 
Testing paper, 96 
Thickness of sheets, 97 
Tinted printings, 45 
Tissue papers, 53 
Toned printings, 45 
Torn paper, 1 1 1 
Transporting paper, 89 
Treatment of esparto, 1 1 

— of rags, 9 
Triplex boards, 59 

— manufacture of, 35 
Tub-sizing, 28 

— testing for, 102 

— writing papers, 30 
Typewriting papers, 40 

Usual weights and sizes of browns 
and wrappings, 142 

printings, 136 

writings, 138 

Varnisiiable paper, 8^ 
Varnished work, paper for, 82 

Washinc; rags, 9, 10 

Water finish, 30 

Waterleaf, 17 

Watermarked paper, cutting, 79 

Watermarks, 15, 25 

Wavy edges, 72 

Wearing qualities of paper, 64 

Weight of paper, to calculate, 146 



INDEX 



l6] 



Weights of browns and wrappings, 
142 

— of printings, 136 

— of writings, 138 

Wet end of paper machine, 21 
Wildness in paper, 112 
Wire mark in paper, 84 
Wood fibres, 5, 62, no 

— microscopical examination of, 

no 

— pulp, 13 

— beating, 13 

— chemical, 3, 13, no 

— mechanical, 3, 6, 13, no 



Wood, mechanical, testing for, 106 

— Mitscherlich, 62 

Woolley paper - testing machine, 

100 
Wove dandy roll, 23 
Wrapping papers, 55 

manufacture of, 56 

Writing papers, 39 

loading in, 20, 64 

tables of sizes, weights, and 

prices, 138 

Yankee papermaking machine, 
25 



II 



Samples of Paper 



No. 



Description. 



Size in 
Inches. 


.2? 


o 


Price 
per 
Lb. 



Approximate Furnish. 



Watermarks, Etc. 



Section i . — Supplied by Messrs J. Spicer 6^ Sous, Ltd. 



1 Hand-made, cr. Id. 

2 Mould-made, cr. Id. 

3 Cream wove, tub- 
! sized 

4 j Blue laid, tub-sized 

5 I Cream laid, e.s. 

6 ; Blue wove, e.s. 



Lb. 

19 xi5i 30 
i8,Lxi4| 30 

18 X23 28 


480 
480 
480 


.?. d. 
I 2 

10 

1 


18 X23 34 


480 


n 


18 X23 25 
18 X 23 1 21 


480 
480 


3 

4 



All rag 



Eltham Court. 



,, j Majesta Super 

I Strong, 5050. 

Rag, 90°/^; chem. wood, 10 7o' Indiana Mill. 
I 

Esp , 90°/^; chem. wood, io7oi The E^^^a. 

„ 80%; „ 20 7J 



Section ih.— Supplied by Messrs Grosvenor, C hater, &> Co., Ltd. 
i6^i 7 



7 j Typewriting mani- 21 ,^ 

! fold bank - - 1 
Cream wove bank - 121 x 16J 11 



9 i Loan 



500 o 5^ 



14 
IS 

16 
17 

18 

19 
20 
21 
22 



Drawing,hand-made 30 x 22 j 72 



X 23 I 20 500 o 10 
472 I 4^ 



Drawing, machine- '30 x 22 70 

made , 

Cartridge - - 30 x 22 j 70 | 480 o 3I 



480 I o I Rag, 80 7o ; chem. wood, 20 %! British Oak 

! Bond. 
,, 60 7o ; " 4o7o 68 Quality. 

,. 85 7„; ,, 157, No. 537. 

All rag Whatman H. P. 

(mill ream). 
Chemical wood - - - No. 818. 



Dupliciting 



Rag, 30 "/^ ; chem. wood, 7o7o No. 642. 



- 121 X i6j| 21 I 480 o 2^1 Esp.,8o7o; chem. wood, 20 7o I93 Mill. 



Sec/ ion 2. — Supplied by Messrs Spalding cr* Hodge, Ltd. 



Hand-made printing 
Machine finish print- 
ing 
Sup.-cal. printing - 
News printing 

Litho. - 
Plate paper - 
Bible „ 

Antique laid book 
,, wove ,, 



17^x225 36 516 I o All rag - - - - -| Aldwych, H.M. 

17^x22^ 20 5040 2| Esp., 307,; chem. wood, 70% " 147." 

I7|x22^, 30 48010 2^ Chemical wood - - - Lyceum. 

17^x22^ 20 5000 if Chem. wood, 25 7.5 mech. 

j wood, 75 °/o 

17^x22^ 24 51610 2\ Esp.,95°/„; chem. wood, 5°/^ Esp. No. 2liiho. 

I7|x22i 40 5160 6 Esparto .... Fine Plate. 

I7^x22i II 5000 2§ Chemical wood - - - Aldwych Bible. 

175x22^ 25 5160 2f Esp., 60%; chem. wood, 4o7o Univ. Ant. laid. 

I7|x22^ 30 5160 2^ ,, 60°/^; ,, 4o7o Univ. Ant. wove 



23 Chromo, one-sided 

24 Art, two-sided 

25 Imitation art 

26 Featherweight, wove 



27 ! 

28 I M. G. poster 



Section 2 a. — Supplied by Messrs J. Dickinson er^ Co., Ltd. 

17^x22^! — 480 — Esparto . . . . 12s. 6d. perrm 

17^x224! 40 5160 3i Chem, wood, 40 7o i esp., 60°/, 

o 2f ,, 20 7o ; 55 80 7o 

o 2h\ ,, 10 °^; ,, 90 7o 

o 2IJ ,, 10 7„; ,, 90 7o 

O 2|j Chemical wood 



17^X22^ 36 

174 X 22^1 20 



laid ji7i X 22.^1 20 



480 
516 
5'6 
516 
516 



117^ X 22J 20 ! 516 



Section 3. — Supplied by Messrs Lepard &= Smiths, Ltd. 
29 I White tissue - - '20 x 30 ! 7 4800 5 Chem. wood, 70 7o 5 straw, " 555. 

30 7o 



30 Cream wove, copy- 18 x 23 

31 White blotting - 17.^ x 22^ 



6 504 o 10 Rag (trace of chem. wood) 
38 480 o 4-|| All rag 



*'T.Y." 

Crown. 



Section 3 a. — Supplied by Messrs Spalding &= Hodge, Ltd. 
32 I Drying royal - - |20 x 25 , 44 | 480 |0 4^! Rag, 80 7o 5 chem. wood, 20%| 



Section 33. — Supplied by Messrs J. Spicer &' So?ts, Ltd. 



34 



Vegetable parchment 
Imitation parchment 



20 X 30 I 32 480 
20 X 30 18 j 480 



o 4I All rag - 

o 3 Chemical wood 

162 



No. I. 



Size in Weight, Sheets in Approximate Furnish. 

Description. inches. lb. ream. 

Cream laid, hand-made iQxiSi 30 480 All rag. 



^7 7 ^ Messrs J. Spicer & Sons, Ltd. 

Eltham Court. 



No. 2. 

Description. ^^^ '"f"'- Sheets in Approximate Furnish. 

Cream laid, mould-made i8| x 14I 30 480 All rag. 

Messrs J. Spicer & Sons, Ltd. 



No. 3. 

Description. f^^ Weight, Sheets in Approximate Furnish. 

Cream wove, tub-sized 18 x 23 28 480 All rag. 

Majesta Super Strong, 5050. Messrs J. Spicer & Sons, Ltd. 



No. 4. 

D„crip.,o„. f^-i" "'t''". Sh-'^™ Appro.i„a« Furnish. 

Blue laid, tub-sized 18x23 34 480 chemi^%Vj;''io'L. 

Indiana Mill. Messrs J. Spicer & Sons, Ltd. 



No. 5- 

r»„(._ -^t- „ Size in Weight, Sheets in . • . t- • . 

Description. j^^^^^ ^jS ^^^^ Approximate furnish. 

Cream laid, engine- « ^ Esparto, 90 % ; 

sized ^«^23 25 480 chemical wood, 10 7, 

The Effra. Messrs J- Spicer & Sons, Ltd. 



No. 6. 



T^ - . Size in Weight, Sheets in » • .„ ^ ., 

Description. -^^^^^^^^ H,^ ^^^^ Approximate Furnish. 

Blue wove, engine- « o Esparto, 80 7o ; 

sized ^^ ^ ^3 21 450 chemical wood, 20 7,. 

Messrs J. Spicer & Sons, Ltd. 



No. 7. 

I Description. ^^_ height, Shee^in Approximate Furnish. 

j Typewriting manifold ,. ., .^i ^ .oq Rag, 80 7, ; 

bank 21x16^ 7 4«o chemical wood, 20 %. 



British Oak Bond. Messrs Grosvenor, Chater, & Go., Ltd. 



Itm/i ^)/,fni/.i. 



A OS ,boow i^oimod-j ^'^^ * ^%^^ ^^ 



No. 8. 

Description. f^^ W.igb, She.es in Appr»i™.. Farni.1,. 

Cream wove bank 21x164 i. 500 chemSf ^^od,' io 7,. 

68 Quality. Messrs Grosvenor, Chater, & Co., Ltd, 



.?; xM 



OO? 1 T 



No. 9. 

Description. ^^^ Weigh,, Shee.^ i„ Approximate Furnish. 

Loan 18x23 20 500 chemical^wood; 15 %• 



No. 537. Messrs Grosvenor, Chater, & Co., Ltd. 



No. 10. 

Description. ?i.em W.feh,, Sheejs i„ App„,i„,., t-„„i,,. 

Drawing, hand-made 30 x 22 72 472 All rag. 

Whatman H. P. Messrs Grosvenor, Chater, & Co., Ltd. 



^ 



No. II. 

Description. f^^ ^^g^^' Sheets in Approximate Furnish. 

^'^'^''JfadT''^'"^' 3°^^^ 7° 4^° Chemical wood. 



No. 8i8. Messrs Grosvenor, Chater, & Co., Ltd. 



No. 12. 

n^o^^:.,.: Size in Weight, Sheets in . ■ . -c • i. 

Description. . , ,f ' Approximate Furnish. 



inches. lb. ream. 



Cartridge. 30x22 70 480 ehemkal^wooZ" 70 %. 

No. 642. Messrs Grosvenor, Chater, tSi Co., Ltd. 



No. 13. 

Description. ^j^eT. ^1t'' 'rSm.'" Approximate Furnish. 

T^ ,• .• ^1 .o« Esparto, 80 °L ; 

Duplicating:. 21x164 21 480 chemical wood, 20 7o. 



193 Mill. Messrs Grosvenor, Chater, & Co., Ltd. 



No. 14. 

Description. g«.^" ^]\^^'' Sh»u in Approximate Furmsh, 

Printing, hand-made 17^x22^ 36 516 All rag. 

Aldwych, hand-made. Messrs Spalding & Hodge, Ltd. 



No. 15. 

De^rriotion -^'^u'" Weight, Sheets in Approximate Furnish. 

JJescnption. inches. lb. ream. ^^ 

Esparto, 30 °/„ ; 
Printing, machine finish 174 x 22| 20 504 chemical wood, 70 7, 



" 147," Printing. Messrs Spalding & Hodge, Ltd. 



:^ 



No. i6. 



Size in Weight, Sheets in 
inches. lb. le.im. 



Approximate Furnish. 



Printing, super- calendere^l lyh x 22^ 30 480 Chemical wood. 

Lyceum, S.C. printing. Messrs Si'ALniNo & Hodc.e, Ltd. 



No. 17. 

DpsrrintJnn ^izc in Weight, Sheets in . ■ ^ i^ 

Description. .^^^^^^ jS ^^^^^ Approximate Furnish. 

News printing 17^x22* 20 Soo Chemical wood, 25 % ; 

^ ^ /2 2 3"w mechanical wood, 75 %. 



Messrs Spalding & Hodge, Ltd. 



No. i8. 

— 



Description. f^, ^ff^' ^'HZ!'' Approxin,ate Furnish. 

^ Esparto, QK °l ; 

Litho I7ix22i 24 516 chemical wood, 5 7o 



Esparto, No. 2 litho. Messrs Spalding & Hodge, Ltd. 



No. 19. 

Description. ^^^ ^^f^' Shee^ in Approximate Furnish. 

Plate paper 17^ x 22^ 40 516 Esparto. 

Fine Plate. Messrs Spalding & Hodge, Ltd. 



No. 20. 



. . Size in Weight, Sheets in Approximate Furnish. 

Description. inches. lb. ream. 



Bible paper 



i^L^22h II 500 Chemical wood. 



Aldwych Bible. Messrs Spalding & Hodge, Ltd. 



I 



No. 21. 



Size in 
inches. 



Description. 

Antique laid book 17^ x 22^ 25 



Weight, Sheets in 
lb. ream. 



516 



Approximate Furnish. 

Esparto, 60 7„ ; ^ 
chemical wood, 40 °/<,. 



Universal Antique, laid. 



Messrs Spalding & Hodge, Ltd, 



No. 22. 



nescriDtion -^'^u '" Weight, Sheets in Approximate Furnish. 

Uescnption. inches. lb. ream. ^*^ 

^ A Esparto, 60 °/^ ; 

Antique wove book 17^ x 22^ 30 S^o chemical wood, 40 7^. 



Universal Antique, wove. Messrs Spalding & Hodge, Ltd. 



No. 23. 



I2S. 6d. per ream. 



Description. 

Chromo, one-sided 174 x 22^ 



Size in Weight, Sheets in 

inches. lb. ream. 



480 



Approximate Furnish, 

Esparto 



Messrs J. Dickinson & Co., Ltd. 



No. 24. 

Size in Weight, Sheets in Approximate Furnish. 

Description. inches. lb- ream. 

Esparto, 60 7o ? 
Art, two-sided ijh x 224 4° 5i6 chemical wood, 40 7c 



Messrs J. Dickinson & Co., Ltd. 



No. 25. 



Description. 

Imitation Art 



Size in Weight, Sheets in 

inches. lb. ream. 



174 X 22i 36 516 



Approximate Furnish. 

Esparto, 80 °/„ ; 
chemical wood, 20 °/„ 



Messrs J- Dickinson & Co., Ltd. 



No. 26. 



_ . . Size in Weight, Sheets in Approximate Furnish. 

Description. inches. lb. ream. ^^ 

, Esparto, 90 7o ; 

Featherweight, wove 17^ x 22^ 20 510 chemical wood, 10 7o- 



Messrs J. Dickinson & Co., Ltd. 



w 

No. 27. 



Size in 
inches. 



Description. 

Featherweight, laid 17^x22^ 20 



Weight, Sheets in 
lb. ream. 



S16 



Approximate Furnish, 

Esparto, 90 °/„ ; 
chemical wood, 10 °/, 



Messrs J. DICKINSON & Co., Ltd. 



No. 28. 



Description. Size in Weight, Sheets in . 

inches. lb. ream. Approximate Furnish. 

M.G. Poster. mx22i 20 516 Chemical wood. 



Messrs J. Dickinson & Co., Ltd. 



Descriptiop. 

(;, . White tissue, 



inches. 



20x30 



No. 29. 

Wfiglit, S.heffts in 
iKi ream. 



Approximate Furnish. 



7 480 Chemical wood, 70 7, 

stc^^^jo 7,. 



555- 



Messrs Lepard & Smiths, Ltd. 






•o\° 0£ ."WBiia 



o8f. V 0£: y OS 3U2ah sjirfW 



.QTJ ,8HTIK8 -J^ QHA'iawI 21829M "-JSJ** 



No. 30. 

np^rrmtJnn ^'^^ '" Weight, Sheets in . . r^ . , 

Description. j^^j^^^ ^^^ ^^^^ Approximate Furnish. 

Cream wove, copying 18 x 23 6 504 ^^^ ^^^^^^ ?^ chemical 

*^ ^ wood^. 



T-Y." Messrs Lepard & Smiths, Ltd. 



.Qg-/%ol4 



.(boow 



^0^ d 



.(IT J ,?.htim8 >!!. a^/.gaJ anfefeaM 



ni 3si8 . . ^ 

£S; 8i sni^qoo ,9vow msaiD 

".Y.T-' 



No. 31. 



Description. 

White blotting 



Size in Weight, Sheets i: 
inches. lb. ream. 



I7i X 22i 38 



480 



Approximate Furnish. 

All rag. 



Crown Blotting. 



Messrs Lepard & Smiths, Ltd. 



No. 32. 

Description. f^,^^" «",f'' ^b-u in ApprciM.., Famish. 

Drying royal 20x25 44 480 chemfcaf 'woVd': 20 7.- 



Messrs Spalding & Hodge, Ltd. 



No. 33. 

Description. g^^ ^^ji^^ S^-^^/" Approximate Furnish. 

Vegetable parchment 20x30 32 480 All rag. 



Messrs J. Spicer & Sons, Ltd. 



^ ^>H 






.-iA 



OF OS insmdGisq alda^T^a^'*'^ 



No. 34. 

T~. • ,- Size in Weieht. Sheets in . • . 1- • i_ 

Description. inches. lb ' ream. Approximate Furnish. 

Imitation parchment 20 x 30 18 480 Chemical wood. 



Messrs J. Spicer & Sons, Ltd. 



